The relationship among demographic variables, professionalism, and level of involvement in a state occupational therapy association.

Occup Ther Health Downloaded from informahealthcare.com by University of Ulster at Jordanstown on 12/07/14 For personal use only.

The Relationship Among Demographic Variables, Professionalism, and Level of Involvement in a State Occupational Therapy Association Lori E. Breeden, OTS Regina L. Fultz, OTS Cynthia A. Gersbacher, OTS Jennifer L. Murrell, OTS Kristen D. Pedersen, OTS Kristine E. Thomas, OTS Julie A. Hanna-Stewart, MS, OTR

ABSTRACT. Research on professional occupations has defined varying criteria that an occupation must meet to be considered a profession. Involvement by the members in their professional organization is a recurrent theme. A questionnaire consisting of Hall’s Occupational Inventory, an involvement scale, and a demographic survey was used to determine the relationship among three factors of the Indiana Occupational Therapy Association members: (a) demographics, (b) professional attributes, and (c) involvement in a state occupational therapy organization. Determining these relationships is significant for understanding membership and involvement in a state occupational therapy association. Findings indicated significant differences in terms of hourly involvement in a state occupational therapy association between respondents The authors would like to thank the IOTA members who participated in this study and the Graduate Programs of Occupational Therapy faculty at the University of Indianapolis. They express sincere gratitude to Julie Hanna-Stewart, MS, OTR, and Penelope E. Moyers, EdD, OTR, FAOTA, for their support and guidance throughout the course of this study. This study was funded in part by IOTA, approved by the Executive Board. This article is based on research conducted by the authors, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Master of Science degree in Occupational Therapy at the University of Indianapolis. Occupational Therapy in Health Care, Vol. 12(2/3) 2000 E 2000 by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved.

53

54

OCCUPATIONAL THERAPY IN HEALTH CARE

with entry-level and post-professional degrees and respondents who were married and those who were not married. [Article copies available for a fee from The Haworth Document Delivery Service: 1-800-342-9678. E-mail address: [email protected] ]


KEYWORDS. Involvement, professionalism, membership, organization, occupational therapy, demographic characteristics

Since the founding of occupational therapy, practitioners have focused on the importance of professionalism and have been striving toward societal acceptance as being members of a professional occupation (Schein, 1972). Traditionally, professionalism has been examined from a sociological perspective. ‘‘In the past there were only four full professions: medicine, law, theology, and university teaching’’ (Brown, 1983, p. 98). Hall (1967) developed specific criteria for members of a profession to fulfill in order to be viewed by society as professionals. Membership in and use of a professional association as a reference are two criteria of particular interest to this study (p. 92). According to Hopkins and Smith (1993), members of a professional organization must take responsibility for the growth of the organization through active participation. Hopkins and Smith concluded: Each OTR, COTA, and occupational therapy student also has an obligation to be involved in district, state and national association affairs to the highest extent possible to be informed of changes in the field . . . and to support their activities so that these associations can continue to provide services that will benefit members and the general public. (p. 7) In a brief survey of 21 state association presidents conducted at the 1998 American Occupational Therapy Association national conference in Baltimore, MD, the researchers found that the majority of state presidents indicated that on average their membership consisted of 25-50% of the practitioners in their state. The presidents who responded also estimated that the ‘‘typical member’’ was involved to a ‘‘small degree.’’ In Indiana, the state of the current study, 54% (1,014 individuals) of OT practitioners are members of the American Occupational Therapy Association (AOTA), and 28% (535 individuals) are

Breeden et al.

55


members of the Indiana Occupational Therapy Association (IOTA). Of this 28%, state association leaders estimated that approximately 65 individuals are involved to a moderate degree, and that approximately 25 individuals could be considered core state association members (personal communications, Christine Kroll, MS, OTR, 1998 IOTA President). Hopkins and Smith (1993) stated: Each OTR and COTA has a professional responsibility to retain competence in his or her field. The professional organization assists practitioners in retaining competence by providing literature, seminars, self-study and conferences. It is also an obligation for the therapist . . . to maintain membership in the state and national associations and to support their activities so that these associations can continue to provide services that will benefit members and the general public. (p. 7-8) Decreased membership and participation levels affect the ability of a professional organization to advocate for consumer issues such as: competent practice, best practice guidelines and effective lobbying for patient services. Effective professional organizations also can serve members through representation of the profession to lawmakers and third party reimbursers, enhancement of the professional image, and provision of networking and social opportunities. Research is limited in understanding the involvement levels of professional association members in both state and national associations. Due to the independent nature of the state associations in relation to AOTA, no combined database of membership information exists (personal communication, Brena Manoly, PhD, OT, Associate Executive Director, AOTA). This study examined involvement of members in a specific state association, IOTA. Increased involvement in a state association would ensure the survival of the state organization, thereby helping to improve the credibility and professional identity of occupational therapy. In this study, the researchers examined why some IOTA members are involved in the state association and others are not. The variables of demographic characteristics, involvement in IOTA and professional attributes of IOTA members were examined in this study. The research questions were: (a) How many hours annually are IOTA members involved, and what is the distribution of hours among the available professional activities offered by IOTA? (b) What professional attrib-


56


utes did IOTA members identify as corresponding with their own professional characteristics on the five sub-scales of Hall’s Occupational Inventory? (c) What do IOTA members perceive as characteristics of an ideal OT practitioner? (d) Are there differences in hourly IOTA involvement among the demographic characteristics (Indiana certification, education level, marital status, dependents, gender, employment status, employment site) of IOTA members? (e) Is there a difference in level of IOTA involvement of IOTA members based on the professionalism score of the individual? (f) What do IOTA members identify as factors that impact IOTA involvement, and what would be the preferred activities in which to participate? (g) What do IOTA members perceive as benefits of membership and involvement in IOTA?

LITERATURE REVIEW Professionalism The literature published during the 1960s and 1970s emphasized the issue of professionalism in health care. Snizek (1972) stated, ‘‘A growing number of sociologists seek to determine appropriate criteria and measurement of individuals’ professional standing. One notable attempt in this regard has been the professionalism scale recently developed and employed by Richard Hall’’ (p. 109). Hall (1967) stated the ‘‘use of a professional organization as a major reference, belief in self regulation, and a degree of autonomy’’ are central characteristics of professionalization of an occupation (p. 18). Hall believed that these three characteristics were imperative in providing practitioners, and the profession as a whole, power in decision-making processes and protection from external organizations or threats (p. 19). Self-regulation and autonomy are essential to maintaining a professions scope of practice when threatened by reimbursement restrictions or by the infringement of other occupations. Concerns about professionalism have reemerged in the last decade as a result of widespread growth in managed care (OT Week, Nov. 1997, p. 12). Reduced autonomy, as a repercussion of managed care, has spurred researchers to question the defining characteristics of a profession. To distinguish occupational therapy as a profession and to


Breeden et al.

57

increase the professionalism of current practitioners, occupational therapy leaders may find it helpful to identify the defining characteristics of professionalism. The literature identifies education as one of the variables influencing professionalism. The educational system may be the best arena for promoting professional development among future occupational therapy practitioners (Donohue, 1995). Clark, Sharrot, Hill, and Campbell (1985) found a significant relationship between educational programs and professionalism, supporting ‘‘the theory that graduate education of a specific kind and quality enhances the professionalization of occupational therapy more so than does undergraduate education’’ (p. 155). Involvement in professional organizations is one indicator of professionalism as defined by Schein (1972, p. 8). Occupational therapy professional organizations exist at both the national and state level. Presently, more occupational therapy practitioners are members of the national organization (AOTA) than of their respective state associations. Currently, there are 1,878 occupational therapists and occupational therapy assistants registered in Indiana, of whom 535 are members of the state organization (C. Spicer, personal communication, March 2, 1998).

Involvement in Professional Associations Research is limited in understanding the motivations and demographics of members involved in a professional association (Yeager & Kline, 1983, p. 46). Bonjean, Markham, and Macken (1994) found that although some members are active participants with high levels of involvement and commitment, other members only passively associate with the state organization. Gilfoyle (1986) and Saller (1976) stressed the value of an active membership within professional associations in order to generate ideas, create innovative solutions, offer up-to-date continuing education, and assure the profession’s future. Within a competitive environment, a profession must utilize a range of alternative opportunities provided by its membership. This literature only begins to identify the differences between membership and involvement in professional associations.

58


Demographic Variables


Age and Gender Gill (1986) surveyed Canadian occupational therapists, which maintained a high commitment to both their provincial and national organizations. Gill determined whether demographic characteristics distinguish active, passive, or non-members. Gill found that the respondents (all active participants in OT organizations), 97% were female, 65% were between the ages of 26 and 40, and 69% lived in large urban communities (p. 192). Gill also found that the majority of highly involved Canadian members recognized the importance of involvement in occupational therapy associations and indicated that further personal commitment to occupational therapy association activities was necessary, which served as an impetus for the current research investigation (p. 195). Employment Yeager and Kline (1983) identified four employment variables that affect membership in professional nursing associations. The four variables include: (a) number of hours worked, (b) employment status, (c) location of employment, and (d) income. According to Yeager and Kline, ‘‘membership in a professional organization increases steadily with the number of hours worked’’ (p. 48). Education Gill (1986) also found that 63% of involved Canadian occupational therapy practitioners held bachelor degrees. In contrast to Gill, other research has suggested that individuals with post-baccalaureate degrees were more likely to be involved in professional organization(s) and professional activities (Barnham & Benseman, 1984; Rogers & Mann, 1980; Rogers, Hill, Holm, & Wasser, 1992; Yeager & Kline, 1983). Clark et al. (1985) found that ‘‘a greater percentage of basic master’s students tend to do research, publish articles, and present more papers at professional conferences-- activities which foster the development, validation, and dissemination of occupational therapy knowledge’’ (p. 162). The results of the study by Clark et al. suggested


Breeden et al.

59

that graduate level education enhances professional organization involvement, specifically within state level occupational therapy associations. Similarly, Rogers and Mann (1980) found that occupational therapists with higher levels of education are more involved in professional activities. Rogers, Hill, Holm, and Wasser (1992) found that occupational therapy practitioners with entry-level and post-professional master degrees scored higher in involvement for several professional activities than occupational therapy practitioners with baccalaureate degrees (p. 152). Rogers et al. (1992) also found the post-professional masters group demonstrated higher involvement than the entry-level masters group in three areas (p. 152). The differences found between the three educational levels suggested that involvement in a professional organization is increased with post-baccalaureate education. Family Structure Among the involved Canadian occupational therapists surveyed by Gill (1986), 67.5% were married and 53% had children. The respondents with children reported the ages of the children as between 0 to 12 years of age. The higher level of involvement is surprising, due to the fact that children aged 0 to 12 are considered to be in their formative years, demanding increased parental attention (p. 192). The findings of Gill, in regard to the ages of the children, contradict many theorists who hypothesize that dependents impact involvement. Summary Membership in a professional organization is a basic premise of professionalism, with members using the organization as a source of knowledge. Members must actively contribute to the body of knowledge and the well being of a professional organization for that organization to thrive. Past researchers have measured changes in membership but not the levels of member involvement. Previous researchers found that the decision to join a professional organization was influenced by certain demographic factors, such as education, employment status, and family structure. Based on the literature review, the focus of this study was to investigate professional attributes, level of involvement in a professional organization, and membership demographics for IOTA members.

60


METHODS


Participants Potential participants included all IOTA members as of September 16, 1998. The results of the study were based upon the 196 returned surveys of the 477 surveys that were mailed to prospective participants, a 41% return rate. The sample consisted of 176 women and 20 men. The mean age of the participants was 34 with a range of 24 to 68. One hundred sixty participants were married, 36 participants were not married. Fifty-three percent of the participants reported having dependents, while the remaining 47% reported having no dependents. Sixteen participants were occupational therapy assistants compared to 180 participants who were occupational therapists. The two main employment sites where participants spent at least 50% of their time were reported as skilled nursing/intermediate care facilities and general hospitals. Eighty-four percent of participants had an undergraduate degree and 14% had a graduate level degree. One hundred forty-seven participants were full-time employees, 39 participants were part-time employees, and 10 participants specified other in regards to employment status. Instruments Demographic Survey The demographic characteristics included: (a) Indiana certification, (b) education level, (c) marital status, (d) number of dependents, (e) gender, (f) employment status, (g) employment site, (h) age, (i) years of experience, and (j) city of residence. Indiana certification was classified as OT or OTA. Initially, education levels were classified by the specific degree attained including AS, BS, MS entry-level, MS post-professional, MS in another field, and PhD. Upon visual inspection of the data, the education levels were redefined into two groups, entrylevel degrees and post-professional degrees. Marital status categories were married and not married. The dependent category included the number of dependents of any age in the care of the respondent. Employment status was defined as full-time (30 or more hours per week), parttime (1-29 hours per week), or special employment situations (part-time


Breeden et al.

61

as needed, retired, unemployed, etc). The employment site categories included: (a) university or college, (b) general hospital, (c) rehabilitation facility, (d) school system, (e) skilled nursing or intermediate care facility, (f) residential care facility, and (g) other. Age and years of experience were collected in years and months. The demographic survey also contained five open-ended questions. The aspects targeted by the questions were factors that impact IOTA involvement, preferred activities in which members would participate in the absence of involvement factors, perceived benefits of IOTA membership and involvement, and the professional characteristics of the ideal OT practitioner. The purpose of the open-ended questions was to allow the researchers to identify categories and provide a broader understanding of the objective data. Professionalism Scale Hall’s Occupational Inventory (1967) was used to measure professional attributes of IOTA members. The Occupational Inventory was based upon the structural aspect of the Wilensky professional model. Wilensky (1964) distinguished non-professional occupations from professional occupations and recognized a natural sequence of stages through which an occupation progresses while establishing a professional identity. The following four stages of Wilensky’s professional model must be achieved by an occupation as a prerequisite for effective use of Hall’s scale: (a) creation of a full-time occupation, (b) establishment of a training model, (c) formation of professional associations, and (d) formation of a code of ethics (Hall, 1967). Therefore, the Hall scale is applicable to the profession of occupational therapy, as the above criteria have been met. Five attitudinal attributes of professionalism were imbedded in the Hall scale to incorporate the theory of professionalism. Hall (1967) proposed that the following attitudinal attributes of professionalism reflect the manner in which the practitioner views his or her occupation: (a) the use of professional organization(s) as a major reference, (b) a belief in service to the public, (c) belief in self-regulation, (d) a sense of calling to the field, and (e) autonomy. The researchers obtained five individual professional attribute subscores from Hall’s Occupational Inventory. Each attribute was determined through ten questions, with the participant indicating how well, ‘‘very well’’ to ‘‘very poorly,’’ they identified with each statement.


62


The responses were converted to a Likert scale with values assigned from one (low identification with the professional attribute) to five (high identification with the professional attribute), with possible scores ranging from a minimum of 10 to a maximum of 50. Hall (1967) used a pre-test to establish reliability and determine items relevant to each attitudinal attribute. The responses of the pre-test group indicated that the scale had content and construct validity. By using the data collected, further reliability of the scale was obtained through use of the split-half method with the Spearman-Brown correction formula. Hall cross-tabulated professionalism with the following behaviors: attendance at professional meetings, membership in professional organizations, use of professional organizations as a major reference, and attaining a license in the field of the occupation. Hall found a difference between respondents who scored high on the professionalism scale and respondents who scored low on the professionalism scale in regards to attendance at professional meetings, membership in professional organizations, and presence of certification or license. Concerns regarding the use of Hall’s Occupational Inventory related to the nebulous definition of professionalism and the age of the scale (Breines, 1988). However, Hall’s Occupational Inventory has recently been used to measure the professional attributes of several occupations (Glanovsky, 1990; Yeager & Kline, 1983; and Yoder, 1995).

Involvement Scale The researchers devised an involvement scale, which measured the time, in hours, that IOTA members spent participating in IOTA activities in the previous year. Steps were taken to establish validity and reliability of the involvement scale. A panel of experts determined construct and content validity. A pilot study was conducted to establish reliability of the involvement scale, which was potentially jeopardized due to the subjective nature of self-report. The researchers administered the test to practitioners in states other than Indiana twice, with a 30-day interval between test dates. Test-retest reliability of the involvement tool was established as no significant difference was found between the pre-tests and post-tests.

Breeden et al.

63


Procedures The researchers obtained an IOTA membership list. The membership list was coded with numbers corresponding to the surveys and consent forms in order to maintain confidentiality of the respondents. Student members of IOTA were excluded from the survey as well as several members who had previous information regarding the study. The surveys were mailed to all eligible IOTA members and participants were requested to return the survey within two weeks. Reminder cards were mailed to those practitioners who failed to return the survey at the end of the two-week period. Incomplete surveys were remailed to the participants with the incomplete sections highlighted for completion. Incomplete surveys were discarded unless the practitioner signed the consent form granting the researchers permission to contact the respondent with further questions. The respondents consented to participation by returning the completed questionnaire. Data Analysis The Occupational Inventory and involvement scales were scored and data were compiled. The involvement data were statistically analyzed in relationship to the demographic variables and the Occupational Inventory scores. The responses of all open-ended questions were categorized and tallied to determine the frequency of responses. Involvement was tabulated by adding the number of hours spent participating in all IOTA activities as approximated by the OT practitioner. Annual hourly involvement of IOTA members in the specific professional activities offered by IOTA was answered by summing the number of self-reported IOTA involvement hours for each activity on the involvement scale. The frequency of IOTA member participation in the available professional activities offered by IOTA was determined by tallying the number of individuals who indicated involvement (greater than zero hours) for each available activity on the involvement scale. Numerical data was collected and visually inspected to determine categories of member involvement: none (0 hours), low (1-15 hours), and high (16 or more hours). The means, standard deviations and ranges on each sub-scale of the Occupational Inventory were calculated. Professional attribute sub-scores on the Occupational Inventory were compiled by summing individual Likert scores within each attribute category; based on the recommendation of Richard Hall,


64


a total professional score was not calculated. Professional attribute categories of low, moderate, and high were established for each subscale through visual inspection of the data for naturally occurring breaks. The hourly IOTA involvement differences according to Indiana certification, education level, marital status, dependents, and gender were statistically analyzed using two-tailed t-tests. Differences in hourly IOTA involvement according to employment status and employment site were examined using Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) tests. Chi-Square tests were used to determine if level of involvement (no, low, and high) of IOTA members was independent of the five professional attribute sub-scores of the individual (low, moderate, and high). An alpha level of .05 was used for all statistical tests. To analyze the open-ended questions, the researchers identified similar phrases and categorized the data for each question. The researchers used the categories that emerged from the open-ended questions to supplement and enhance overall understanding of the objective data. DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS Of the 196 respondents, 80 individuals (41%) reported no (zero) hours of annual involvement and only 16 individuals (8.2%) reported more than 50 hours of annual involvement. Members of IOTA reported 42.6% of their involvement hours as spent in attendance at biannual conferences (1118.5 hours) and district meetings (333 hours). Table 1 lists the means, standard deviations, and ranges in hours for each of the IOTA involvement categories. The hourly involvement means and standard deviations for the demographics of Indiana certification, education level, marital status, dependents, and gender are described in Table 2. In addition, t-tests were used to determine if significant differences existed within the various demographic variables in terms of hourly IOTA involvement. A significant difference was found between respondents with entry-level degrees and those with post-professional degrees on hours of involvement in IOTA, t (192) = 2.86, p = .0047, with entry-level respondents reporting more involvement. A significant difference was also found between married and not-married respondents on hours of involvement in IOTA, t (184) = 2.44, p = .016,

Breeden et al.

65

TABLE 1. Distribution of Hours of Involvement in a Professional State Association Areas of Involvement


Involvement Total

M

n

Min

Max

SD

Total Hours

17.3

67

0

449

54.8

3404.0

Attendance at Conference

5.7

59

0

100

11.6

1118.5

Officer: Personal Time

4.3

14

0

300

31.1

839.0

Committee: Personal Time

2.3

30

0

100

9.4

447.0

District Meetings

1.7

67

0

30

4.0

333.0

Preparation for Conference 1.1

16

0

100

7.6

207.0

Committee Meetings

0.9

25

0

50

4.5

192.5

Board Meetings

0.6

19

0

24

2.6

129.0

Other

0.6

18

0

32

3.1

87.0

Writing

0.3

13

0

10

1.3

51.5

N = 196

TABLE 2. Mean Hours of Involvement and Demographics Categories

n

M

SD

df

21

Indiana Certification COTA

16

19.10

37.90

OTR

180

17.20

56.20

164

19.70

59.60

32

5.48

9.93

36

7.37

9.29

160

19.60

60.40

92

10.30

18.80

104

23.70

72.80

20

9.60

19.60

176

18.30

57.50

Education Level** Entry-Level Post-Professional Level

192

Marital Status* Not married Married

184

Dependents No Dependents Dependents

118

Gender Male Female

*p < 0.05. **p < 0.01

67



66

with married respondents reporting more involvement. No significant differences were found in hours of involvement between respondents in terms of: Indiana certification, t (21) = .18, p = .86; dependents, t (118) = 1.81, p = .072; or gender, t (67) = 1.40, p = .16. Using one-way ANOVA tests, the mean hours of involvement were compared for the two variables of employment status and employment site. No significant differences resulted among the three work-status categories (F = 1.02, P = .363), or among the seven employment-site categories (F = 1.00, P = .427). A one-way ANOVA test showed no significant difference in mean number of involvement hours for each of the six possible educational degrees (F = 1.22, P = .303). Table 3 describes the means, standard deviations, and ranges of scores for each of the 5 sub-scales of Hall’s Occupational Inventory. The mean scores, fell between 23.85 and 26.13, out of possible total of 50, on each of the professionalism sub-scales. Chi-square tests were used to examine if the level of involvement in IOTA was determined to be independent of the five sub-scale scores on Hall’s Occupational Inventory. The level of involvement was independent of the five professionalism sub-scale scores: belief in service to the public, 2 (4, N = 192) = 2.329, p < .05; belief in self-regulation, 2 (4, N = 192) = 4.403, p < .05; use of professional organization as a major reference, 2 (4, N = 192) = 16.04, p < .05; sense of calling to the field, 2 (4, N = 192) = 1.445, p < .05; and autonomy, 2 (4, N = 192) = 6.209, p < .05. The five open-ended questions addressed the views of the respondents on IOTA involvement and professionalism. As perceived by the respondents the five most frequently reported professional attributes TABLE 3. Descriptive Analysis of Professional Subscales Categories of Subscales

M

Min

Max

SD

Use of Professional Organization as a Reference

25.510

14

38

4.551

23.870

11

36

4.329

Belief in Self-Regulation

25.604

16

45

4.587

Belief in Public Service

26.130

14

38

4.859

Calling to the Field

24.813

14

38

4.137

Autonomy

N = 192


Breeden et al.

67

of the ideal OT practitioner were knowledgeable and intelligent, patient advocate, congenial, strong problem solving and creativity, and strong communication skills. When asked to identify factors that impact involvement in IOTA, respondents denoted family commitments as the number one factor. When asked to identify activities in which to participate given that no factors impacting involvement existed, 22% of the respondents were unable to identify an area in which they would like to participate. In addition, many of the respondents were unable to distinguish between benefits of IOTA membership and benefits of IOTA involvement. The top five answers, with percentage of respondents who gave that answer, for each of the five questions are listed in Table 4.

TABLE 4. Responses to Open Ended Ouestions Questions

Most Frequent Responses

Percentage of Response

Are there any significant barriers to your involvement in IOTA?

Family, Spouse & Children Location of Meetings Work commitments Time Constraints Community Commitments

47.0% 23.0% 20.0% 18.0% 16.0%

If there were no barriers to involvement what activities would you choose?

Attending Conferences Attending District Meetings Promoting the profession through publicity Blank Legislative Awareness & Unaware (tie)

18.0% 17.0% 14.0% 12.0% 10.0%

What are the benefits of membership in IOTA?

Networking Lobbying & Continuing Education (tie) Receiving Information Increased Legislative Awareness Receiving the Monthly Newsletter

36.0% 21.0% 17.3% 16.8% 13.7%

What are the benefits of involvement in IOTA?

Networking Receiving Current Information Participating in Continuing Education Supporting and impacting the profession Increased Legislative Awareness

46.0% 31.0% 13.7% 12.0% 10.0%

Describe professional characteristics of the ideal OT practitioner

Knowledgeable & Intelligent Patient Advocate Congenial Problem Solving & Creativity Communication Skills

43.0% 31.0% 29.0% 25.0% 22.0%

68



DISCUSSION The purpose of this study was to gain further insight into how various demographic factors and professionalism characteristics relate to the level of individual member involvement in a state occupational therapy association, specifically IOTA. After scoring the involvement and professionalism scales and compiling the data, several relevant aspects emerged. When examining the level of involvement data most respondents reported no involvement and very few respondents reported more than 50 hours of involvement in IOTA activities. In this study, a member was considered highly involved with 16 hours of participation in IOTA activities. Sixteen hours of involvement is the equivalent of attending the annual two-day Fall IOTA Conference. Does 16 hours of conference attendance accurately depict a highly involved IOTA member? Conference attendance is a form of passive participation (Bonjean et al., 1994 and Gill, 1996) that does not indicate involvement within the professional association. Nearly one quarter of the respondents were unable to identify IOTA involvement opportunities available to them. Hopkins and Smith (1993) stressed the individual responsibility of each practitioner to become active members in professional associations, which lead the researchers to believe that the professional identity of OT practitioners would be enhanced through improved membership awareness as to available activities in which to actively participate. Interestingly, many respondents appeared to use the words ‘‘membership’’ and ‘‘involvement’’ synonymously, as indicated by the similar responses given to the two questions, which asked members to identify the benefits of membership and the benefits of involvement in the professional association. Although limited literature was found that discussed the difference between membership and involvement in a professional organization, Gilfoyle (1986) and Saller (1976) conducted studies that emphasized the importance of an involved membership in a professional organization. Considering the perspectives of Gilfoyle and Saller, the fact that a large portion of respondents could not identify the difference between membership and involvement, or identify activities in which to participate, may threaten the viability of a professional organization. The researchers found that there were two variables, education and marital status, that did have significant differences in the level of


Breeden et al.

69

hourly involvement in IOTA. In contrast to the literature, this study revealed that practitioners with entry-level degrees were more involved in IOTA activities than practitioners with post-professional degrees. The reviewed literature (Barnham & Benseman, 1984; Clark et al., 1985; Rogers & Mann, 1980; Rogers et al., 1992) that examined differences in level of involvement in a professional organization between baccalaureate and post-baccalaureate students or graduates found that practitioners with post-baccalaureate degrees were more involved in professional associations than practitioners with baccalaureate degrees. Upon examination of the data, the researchers found no significant difference between education and involvement when defining the educational categories in the same manner as previous researchers. In addition, the researchers found that married practitioners were more involved in IOTA activities than practitioners who were not married. This finding is supported by Gill (1986) who found that 67.5% of involved Canadian OT practitioners were married. The greater involvement of married IOTA members was interesting considering the fact that commitment to family, including spouse and children, was also the most frequently reported factor that impacted involvement in IOTA activities. In this study, marital status and education level were the only demographic variables found that lead to differences in IOTA involvement. The researchers investigated many of the same demographic variables as other researchers (Barnham & Benseman, 1984; Clark et al., 1985; Gill, 1986; Rogers & Mann, 1980; Rogers et al., 1992; Yeager & Kline, 1983) to examine if a difference in involvement in a professional association existed according to membership characteristics. The lack of significant differences in IOTA involvement between the remaining demographic variables (Indiana certification, dependents, gender, employment status, and employment site) indicates that future researchers should explore other demographic characteristics. In addition, level of IOTA involvement was independent of the Hall’s Occupational Inventory sub-scores. The five mean scores on the Occupational Inventory were close together and focused in the midrange. The professional attribute scores and the absence of dependence between professional attitudes and level of involvement directed the researchers to the open-ended responses to gain an understanding of the professional perceptions of the respondents. The

70



characteristics defined throughout the professionalism literature and the professional attributes specifically measured by Hall’s Occupational Inventory were not reflected in the open-ended responses regarding the ideal OT practitioner. Occupational therapists desire to define OT as a profession, however, the recognized attributes, which define a profession do not seem to coincide with the perceived characteristics of the surveyed IOTA members.

Limitations

As with any survey, the results were limited by the number and quality of responses received. Although the 41% return rate appeared to provide a representative sample of the population, a higher return rate of completed surveys could have provided further insight into the demographics and motives of involved members. The detailed nature and extensive length of the survey may also have negatively affected the return rate. In terms of quality, some respondents gave short answers or did not fully answer each question. Due to financial constraints, the researchers selected to only survey current members of IOTA. Therefore, the sample selected tended to exhibit a certain level of commitment and involvement in the professional association and the findings of the study can not be generalized to non-members. A survey sample that also included non-member OT practitioners may have yielded beneficial information regarding the membership and involvement in a state professional occupational therapy association in Indiana. The survey itself contained limitations regarding the information requested. Hall’s Occupational Inventory required participants to complete a self-assessment of professional behaviors and beliefs with a subjective Likert scale. The involvement scale relied upon the participants to accurately recall and estimate the number of hours spent in IOTA activities within the past year. As with all self-report measures, the validity of the collected survey data depends on the willingness of the participants to accurately report their professional attitudes and activity participation. In this study, no effort was made to verify the self-report of the respondents.

Breeden et al.

71


SUMMARY Overall, the majority of members demonstrated a low level of involvement in IOTA. The level of involvement in IOTA was independent of the Occupational Inventory scores. This study found significant differences in hourly IOTA involvement within the demographic categories of marital status and education. Although the most frequently reported factors that impacted involvement was family commitments, married members reported higher levels of IOTA involvement than members who were not married. In addition, members with entry-level degrees reported higher levels of involvement in IOTA than members with post-professional degrees. Based on these findings, this study should be replicated within each state to explore the trends found in membership and involvement of state professional occupational therapy association members. Future research should include a larger survey sample consisting of both members and nonmembers of a state professional occupational therapy association. A qualitative study examining occupational therapy practitioner’s concept of professionalism and its impact on practice could provide evidence of practitioner awareness of the role of professionalism. Other demographic characteristics and personality traits may also affect involvement in professional associations and could be worthy of examination. Information collected within each state would help the individual state occupational therapy association leaders to understand the demographics of the membership, and factors that impact membership and involvement, possibly assisting in the creation of larger, more involved memberships. REFERENCES American Occupational Therapy Association. (1997, November 20). Interprofessional mandate for growth. OT Week, 11, 12. Barnham, P. M., & Benseman, J. (1984). Participation in continuing medical education of general practitioners in New Zealand. Journal of Medical Education, 59, 649-654. Bonjean, C. M., Markham, W. T., & Macken, P. O. (1994). Measuring self-expression in volunteer organizations: A theory-based questionnaire. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 30, 487-515. Brienes, E. B. (1988). Redefining professionalism for occupational therapy. The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 42, 55-57.


72


Brown, C. (1983). Adult education forum: Reappraising the professionalism of adult education. Adult Education Quarterly, 34, 97-104. Clark, F., Sharrot, G., Hill, D. J., & Campbell, S. (1985). A comparison of impact of undergraduate and graduate occupational therapy education on professional productivity. The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 39, 155-163. Donohue, M. V. (1995). A study of the development of traits of entry-level occupational therapy students. The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 49, 703-709. Gilfoyle, E. M. (1986). Professional directions: Management in action. The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 40, 593-596. Gill, T. (1986). Muriel Driver lecture 1986: You can’t take it with you! The Canadian Journal of Occupational Therapy, 53, 189-196. Glanovsky, A. R. (1990). Correlates of nursing faculty attitudes toward professionalism and their perceptions of organizational climate. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Connecticut. Hall, R. H. (1967). The components of professionalism. Unpublished manuscript, The University at Albany State University of New York. Hopkins, H. L., & Smith, H. P. (1993). Willard and Spackman’s Occupational Therapy (8th ed.). Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Company. Rogers, J.C., Hill, D.J., Holm, M.B., & Wasser, T.E. (1992). Educational level and professional activities of occupational therapists: A case study. Occupational Therapy Journal of Research, 12, 148-158. Rogers, J. C., & Mann, W. C. (1980). The relationship between professional productivity and educational level, part 2 results and discussion. The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 34, 460-468. Saller, D. M. (1976). Membership with motivation. Occupational Health Nursing, 10-12. Schein, E. A. (1972). Professional Education: Some New Directions. New York: McGraw-Hill. Snizek, W. E. (1972). Hall’s Professionalism Scale: An empirical reassessment. American Sociological Review, 37, 109-114. Wilensky, H. L. (1964). The professionalization of everyone. The American Journal of Sociology, 70, 137-158. Yeager, S. J., & Kline, M. (1983). Professional association membership of nurses: Factors affecting membership and the decision to join an association. Research in Nursing and Health, 6, 45-52. Yoder, L. H. (1995). Staff nurses’ career development relationships and self-reports of professionalism, job satisfaction, and intent to stay. Nursing Research, 44, 290-291.

Relationship among environmental and demographic variables and teacher-rated hyperactivity.

Relationship between death anxiety and demographic variables.

Conceptualising professionalism in occupational therapy through a Western lens.

Living tensions: reconstructing notions of professionalism in occupational therapy.

Partial Edentulism and its Association with Socio-Demographic Variables among Subjects Attending Dental Teaching Institutions, India.

Association of socioeconomic and clinical variables with the state of frailty among older inpatients.

Continuing education requirements among State Occupational Therapy Regulatory Boards in the United States of America.

The relationship between socioeconomic variables and major mental illness in the counties of a midwestern state.

Relationship between religiosity, religious coping and socio-demographic variables among out-patients with depression or diabetes mellitus in Enugu, Nigeria.

Relationship between depressive symptoms and perceived individual level occupational stress among Japanese schoolteachers.

Association of some socio-economic and socio-demographic variables with wasting among pre-school children of North Bengal, India.

A Causal Relationship of Occupational Stress among University Employees.

AOTA) Research Agenda.

Association between bone scintigraphy features of spinal degeneration and anthropometric and demographic variables.

Breastfeeding Practices, Demographic Variables, and Their Association with Morbidities in Children.

Varicose veins of the legs among nurses: Occupational and demographic characteristics.

Relationship of diagnostic, demographic, and personality variables to self-reported stimuli for chemical use.

Relationship among self-esteem, psychological reactance, and other personality variables.

Occupational injuries and illnesses among Washington State agricultural workers.

Development of a pilot project on data sharing among partners of the Italian Hub of Population Biobanks (HIBP): association between lipid profile and socio-demographic variables.

Socio-Demographic Variables and Successful Aging of the Angolan Elderly.

NHS bargaining and professionalism at local level.

[Implementation of the food choice questionnaire in young adolescents and their relationship to overweight and other socio-demographic variables].

Association of gender norms, relationship and intrapersonal variables, and acculturation with sexual communication among young adult Latinos.