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Interventions to combat or prevent drug counterfeiting: a systematic review Fadi El-Jardali,1,2,3 Elie A Akl,1,3,4,5 Racha Fadlallah,1 Sandy Oliver,6 Nadine Saleh,7 Lamya El-Bawab,1 Rana Rizk,8 Aida Farha,9 Rasha Hamra10

To cite: El-Jardali F, Akl EA, Fadlallah R, et al. Interventions to combat or prevent drug counterfeiting: a systematic review. BMJ Open 2015;5:e006290. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2014006290 ▸ Prepublication history and additional material is available. To view please visit the journal (http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1136/bmjopen-2014006290). Received 2 August 2014 Revised 9 December 2014 Accepted 22 December 2014

For numbered affiliations see end of article. Correspondence to Dr Fadi El-Jardali; [email protected]

ABSTRACT Objective: Drug counterfeiting has serious public health and safety implications. The objective of this study was to systematically review the evidence on the effectiveness of interventions to combat or prevent drug counterfeiting. Data sources: We searched multiple electronic databases and the grey literature up to March 2014. Two reviewers completed, in duplicate and independently, the study selection, data abstraction and risk of bias assessment.

Study eligibility criteria, participants and interventions: We included randomised trials, non-randomised studies, and case studies examining any intervention at the health system-level to combat or prevent drug counterfeiting. Outcomes of interest included changes in failure rates of tested drugs and changes in prevalence of counterfeit medicines. We excluded studies that focused exclusively on substandard, degraded or expired drugs, or that focused on medication errors. Appraisal and synthesis: We assessed the risk of bias in each included study. We reported the results narratively and, where applicable, we conducted metaanalyses. Results: We included 21 studies representing 25 units of analysis. Overall, we found low quality evidence suggesting positive effects of drug registration (OR=0.23; 95% CI 0.08 to 0.67), and WHOprequalification of drugs (OR=0.06; 95% CI 0.01 to 0.35) in reducing the prevalence of counterfeit and substandard drugs. Low quality evidence suggests that licensing of drug outlets is probably ineffective (OR=0.66; 95% CI 0.41 to 1.05). For multifaceted interventions (including a mix of regulations, training of inspectors, public-private collaborations and legal actions), low quality evidence suggest they may be effective. The single RCT provided moderate quality evidence of no effect of ‘two extra inspections’ in improving drug quality. Conclusions: Policymakers and stakeholders would benefit from registration and WHO-prequalification of drugs and may also consider multifaceted interventions. Future effectiveness studies should address the methodological limitations of the available evidence. Trial registration number: PROSPERO CRD42014009269.

Strengths and limitations of this study ▪ This is the first systematic review assessing the effectiveness of interventions to combat or prevent drug counterfeiting. ▪ The systematic review responds to a policyrelevant priority identified by policymakers and stakeholders from several low-income and middle-income countries. ▪ We searched multiple databases and included published as well as grey literature. ▪ Most of the included studies were observational in nature.

INTRODUCTION Drug counterfeiting is widespread and affects developing as well as developed countries.1 2 It is believed that up to 10% of all medicines sold worldwide are counterfeit, with higher prevalence in regions where drug regulatory and enforcement systems are weakest.3 4 Estimates suggest that counterfeited drugs can account for over 30% of all drugs in parts of Africa, Asia and the Middle East, in contrast to less than 1% in the USA and Western Europe.4–6 There is still no consensus over what constitutes a counterfeited medicine.1 7 The WHO defined counterfeit medicines as those which have been deliberately and fraudulently mislabelled with respect to identity and/or source; counterfeit medicines may include medicines with the correct ingredients or with the wrong ingredients, without active ingredients, with insufficient active ingredients or with fake packaging.2 Under the Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) Agreement, counterfeiting refers to the deliberate infringement of trademark on a commercial scale.7 8 This definition, however, diverts attention from the serious public health implications of poor-quality drugs.8 9 Thus, the term ‘falsified’ is increasingly being used as a synonym for counterfeit drugs to avoid the controversy over Intellectual Property issues.9

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Open Access Counterfeit and substandard drugs have often been conflated,9 with the latter referring to genuine medicines that have failed to meet the quality specifications set by national pharmacopoeia standards.2 In 2011, the WHO member states incorporated counterfeit and substandard medicines under the new term “substandard/ spurious/falsely-labelled/falsified/counterfeit medical products” (SSFFC).10 This new term has recently been queried as it is felt not to adequately differentiate between the different illicit drug categories, which may entail different solutions.11 Counterfeited drugs span the spectrum from lifestyle drugs to lifesaving drugs.12 They can result in adverse health outcomes and treatment failures, development of drug resistance and decline in confidence in health systems, all of which contribute to the burden of disease and, subsequently, to excess morbidity and mortality.13 Indeed, significant deaths have been attributed to counterfeited medications.13–15 A variety of interventions have been recommended to combat the problem of drug counterfeiting. These include: legal actions and regulations on illicit traders, countermeasures using technologies, consumer education and cooperation with enforcement agencies.16 17 The need to identify effective anticounterfeiting strategies has recently been raised as a main policy concern by policymakers from several low-income and middle-income countries including the Eastern Mediterranean Region.18 As a response, the Center for Systematic Review on Health Policy and Systems Research (SPARK) held a stakeholder meeting in Lebanon on January 2014 with 14 policymakers and stakeholders, including representatives from the Ministry of Public Health, Order of Pharmacy, order of physicians and practicing pharmacists. The members were engaged in framing the review question for the current systematic review. The objective of this study was to systematically review the evidence on the effectiveness of interventions implemented to combat or prevent drug counterfeiting, particularly in low-income and middle-income countries, given its high priority and prevalence. We could not

identify any systematic review in the literature that examined the effectiveness of interventions to combat drug counterfeiting. Thus, the findings can help inform policy-decisions regarding the type of interventions to implement, given their contexts and available resources.

METHODS We developed a conceptual framework for the different anticounterfeiting strategies, informed by extensive review of the literature. The framework guided us in refining the review question and in developing the eligibility criteria. For details, please refer to figure 1 in the results section. Protocol and registration We registered the review protocol in PROSPERO International prospective register of systematic reviews. The protocol can be accessed at http://www.crd.york.ac. uk/PROSPERO/display_record.asp?ID=CRD42014009269. Eligibility criteria The eligibility criteria were: Types of studies: Randomised trials, non-randomised studies (eg, cohort studies, prospective studies, retrospective studies, cross-sectional studies, before and after studies) and case studies. We excluded editorials, letters to the editors, reflections, proposals, reviews and studies published only in abstract format. We considered published and unpublished studies. Problem: Counterfeit/spurious/falsely-labelled/falsified/medicines. We used the WHO’s definition for counterfeit medicines, which includes medicines with the correct ingredients or with the wrong ingredients, without active ingredients, with insufficient active ingredients or with fake packaging drugs.2 19 While the primary focus of our review is on counterfeit drugs, we included substandard drugs only when the study did not differentiate between the two or if it was unclear if the poor-quality medicine was counterfeit or substandard. However, we excluded studies that linked poor quality to degradation or

Figure 1 A framework for the different anticounterfeit drug strategies.

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Open Access expiration of drugs as these were beyond the scope of counterfeit drugs as per the WHO’s definition. We also excluded studies that focused exclusively on substandard drugs and studies that focused on herbal medicines/ dietary supplements/cosmetics/food. Types of interventions: We included any intervention at the health system level to combat or prevent drug counterfeiting (eg, anticounterfeit laws and legislations, inspection and quality control, awareness campaigns, technology). We excluded studies that focused on internet/online drug counterfeiting. We also excluded studies on the reliability of analytical techniques (eg, high-performance liquid chromatography and UV-visible spectrophotometry) and studies on interventions to improve the medication administration process or reduce medication errors. Comparator/control: The comparator was the lack or absence of intervention, either explicitly or implicitly stated. Type of outcome measures: Changes in failure rates of tested drugs (failure refers to drugs not meeting the minimum requirement for basic testing, quality control lab testing, and/or packaging analysis), changes in the prevalence of counterfeit/spurious/falsely-labelled/falsified/medicines, changes in quality of medicine, changes in behaviour of consumers, seizures of counterfeit drugs and closures of illegal outlets/warehouses/shops. We did not exclude studies based on date of publication or setting. We excluded studies not published in English, Arabic or French. Literature search method We searched the following electronic databases up to March 2014: Medline, Pubmed, Embase, Cumulative Index to Nursing & Allied Health Literature (CINAHL), Global Health Library, Rx for change, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL), Health Systems Evidence, Cab Direct, Academic Search Complete, Google Scholar, Mednar, GreylitNetwork and Opengrey. The search combined various terms for counterfeit drugs and included free text words as well as controlled vocabulary terms such as MeSH (Medical Subject Headings), in addition to various search options available for each resource. We did not use any search filter for study type, language or date of publication. The search strategy was validated by a medical librarian who supports the work of the Center (see online supplementary appendix 1). We also searched relevant websites such as the WHO, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the Center for Disease Control (CDC) and the US Pharmacopeia (USP). Also, we reviewed the reference lists of included studies and contacted the authors of relevant articles for further information or additional potentially relevant studies. Selection process Two reviewers screened the titles and abstracts of identified citations, in duplicate and independently, for El-Jardali F, et al. BMJ Open 2015;5:e006290. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2014-006290

potential eligibility. All reviewers hold at least a Master’s degree (with some having PhDs) in public health or other health-related field and they have all been trained in conducting systematic reviews. We conducted a calibration exercise to ensure validity of the selection process. We retrieved the full text for studies judged as potentially eligible by at least one of the two reviewers. Two reviewers screened the full texts in duplicate and independently for eligibility. They used a standardised and pilot tested screening form. They resolved disagreements by discussion. Data abstraction process Two reviewers abstracted data from eligible studies in duplicate and independently. They used a standardised data abstraction form to collect data on study design, definition, setting, drug type, intervention, comparison group, outcomes evaluated, statistical and non-statistical results, funding and reported conflicts of interests. They resolved disagreements by discussion. Risk of bias assessment Two reviewers independently assessed the risk of bias. They resolved disagreements by discussion. We used the Cochrane Risk of Bias tool to assess the risk of bias in randomised trials and a modified version of the Cochrane Risk of Bias tool to assess the risk of bias in non-randomised studies.20 We graded each potential source of bias as low, high or unclear risk of bias. Data analysis and synthesis We calculated the κ statistic to assess the agreement between the reviewers in judging full texts for eligibility. We conducted meta-analyses, stratified by the type of intervention. We calculated the unadjusted OR by entering the raw data in RevMan and planned a priori to pool the results using a random-effects model. The latter is recommended when heterogeneity between studies is assumed, particularly among observational studies.21 22 We tested the results for homogeneity across studies using the I2 test and considered heterogeneity present if I2 was greater than 50%. We also reported the results narratively when the data were not reported in a way to allow their inclusion in the meta-analysis. RESULTS The first two sections, respectively, provide an overview of the search results and a description of included studies, including their risk of biases. Afterwards the effects of the interventions are specifically addressed. Results of the search Figure 2 shows the study flow. Of the 10 220 studies identified through database and website searches, 20 studies met our inclusion criteria. One additional study was identified through screening the reference lists of the included studies. The 21 included studies represented 3

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Open Access 25 units of analysis (3 studies examined more than one type of strategy). We excluded 166 full texts (see online supplementary appendix 2). The value of κ statistic for full-text screening was 0.638, reflecting good agreement between the reviewers. Online supplementary tables S1 and S2 show the characteristics of the included studies. The most common study design was cross-sectional (14/21). There were also five before–after studies, one retrospective study and one case study. Among the 21 included studies, we also identified 1 randomised trial that was conducted in parallel and on the same study population as 1 of the pre–post studies.23 Only one article was reported in French language.24 Sixteen articles were published in academic journals, three were reports from the WHO and two were reports from the USP. All studies were conducted in low-income and middle-income

countries. However, none was from the Eastern Mediterranean Region. Figure 1 shows the conceptual framework we developed for the different anticounterfeit interventions/ strategies. The shaded cells in the framework portray areas where evidence about the intervention exists. We could not establish whether evidence exists for counterfeit drugs bought online as this was beyond the scope of the review. The 21 included studies examined various types of interventions (table 1). In all included studies, except the randomised trial, the comparator was the absence of intervention or strategy (explicitly or implicitly stated). For the randomised trial, two different levels of the intervention were compared to each other and to the absence of intervention. The types of outcomes measured were: changes in failure rates of tested drugs

Figure 2 Flowchart for results of search strategy.

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Open Access Table 1 Key characteristics of the interventions included in the systematic review Intervention

Study design

Laws and regulations (13 studies with 16 units of analysis) 5 cross-sectional Drug registration25–29 studies

WHO-prequalification of drugs25 30 31

Licensing of drug outlet25 28

3 cross-sectional studies

32–37

Technological innovations (1 study) Product authentication technology38

8 cross-sectional studies

1 retrospective study

Awareness and communication (2 studies) Increased public information24 1 cross-sectional study

Local and international collaboration39

1 case study

Characteristics A form of regulation to ensure access to effective and safe medicines. It involves assessments by relevant drug regulatory authorities of manufacturers of all components of drugs to ensure they are certified as meeting the international standards for GMP before authorising the drug for sale. A service provided by the WHO to “facilitate access to medicines that meet unified standards of quality, safety and efficacy primarily for HIV/AIDS, malaria TB and reproductive health”.31 This refers to the authorisation of pharmaceutical establishments by drug regulatory authorities with the aim of ensuring that the supply and sale of drugs are carried out by qualified personnel on premises that meet regulatory requirements. This involved the deployment of six handheld laser (Raman) spectrometers by the National Agency for Food and Drug Administration and Control for immediate authentication of drugs at the point of sale. A public awareness campaign, mainly using TV and radio announcements, to promote public awareness of the dangers of counterfeit medicine from the illicit drug market. The campaign was designed based on previous survey data collected to evaluate the purchasing practices of consumers. An international cross-disciplinary model of interaction and collaboration between WHO officials, physicians, pharmacists and scientists, and the Interpol, to investigate the source of counterfeit drugs in South East Asia.

Multifaceted interventions (5 studies with 6 units of analysis) The PQM Program40–43 4 pre–post studies A mechanism for MQM funded by the USAID and implemented by the USP. It is characterised by (1) early detection of poor-quality medicines (substandard and counterfeit) using a three-level testing approach of increasingly complex levels of analysis, (2) collaborations with a country’s medicine regulatory authorities and international partners, and (3) strengthening of regulatory authorities’ capacities for enforcement of actions based on field evidence. Quality assurance system within 1 pre–post study The system encompassed three main features: (1) development the NDPP23 of regulations, for example, improvement of drug registration system and increased requirement for imported drugs, (2) training of drug inspectors in good manufacturing and pharmacy practice, and (3) implementation of legal actions, for example, fines and product recall. 1 randomised trial The regulatory interventions focused on improving the quality of Regulatory intervention on private private pharmacy services. The regular intervention package pharmacy services23 consisted of four high-quality annual inspections, sanctions for any violation, distribution of regulation documents to the private pharmacies and provision of information to the drug sellers about particular areas needing improvement. The active intervention package included these components, and was actively promoted through intensified supervision and additional training for the district drug inspectors. GMP, good manufacturing practice; MQM, Medicine Quality Monitoring; NDPP, National Drug Policy Programme; USAID, US Agency for International Development; USP, US Pharmacopeia; TB, tuberculosis.

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Open Access (19 studies); changes in prevalence of counterfeit drugs (4 studies); confiscation of counterfeit drugs (2 studies); closure of illegal outlets (2 studies); and changes in behaviour of consumers (1 study). Some studies reported more than one type of outcome. Most of the studies used failure rates to measure changes in the quality of medicines without distinguishing between counterfeit and substandard drugs. Risk of bias Online supplementary tables S3 and S4, respectively, show the assessments of the risk of bias for the observational studies and the single randomised trial. Online supplementary figures S1 and S2 show the corresponding risk of bias summary figures. Effects of interventions This section addresses the type and evidence for each intervention separately. We present the results of singleintervention studies in the order they appear in the framework followed by the multifaceted intervention studies that cut across the different elements in the framework. Registration Five cross-sectional studies examined the association between registration of medicines and changes in failure rates, and prevalence of counterfeit drugs.25–29 We were able to pool the results for four studies. The pooled association estimate was OR=0.23 (95% CI 0.08 to 0.67), with I2 of 88% (see online supplementary figure S3). Of the four studies included in the meta-analysis, one conducted statistical tests and found a statistically significant association between drug registration and decreased prevalence of counterfeit drugs (adjusted OR=6.24, p

Interventions to combat or prevent drug counterfeiting: a systematic review.

Drug counterfeiting has serious public health and safety implications. The objective of this study was to systematically review the evidence on the ef...
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