Doctoral Preparation for Faculty Roles: Expectations and Realities SHAKB KETEFIAN, EDD, RN, FAAN*
The purpose of this report is to clarify the issues and discongruities between educational preparation of doctoral program graduates and employer expectations (educational institutions), and to stimulate thinking concerning strategies that might bs used by doctoral programs to more effectively prepare graduates to deal with an integrated professional role, including that of faculty. (Index words: Doctoral education; Faculty roles; Professional roles) J Prof Nurs 7:105-711, 1991. Copyright 0 1997 by WB. Saunders Company
velop skills
of inquiry
knowledge,
to tackle intellectual and
scription,
D
diversity
doctoral education,
as to broad
goals.
pertain
nurses who will (a) expand tivities,
of arenas
(Crowley,
the scientific
within
knowledge
research and scholarly the
capacities
society
careers as scientists, experience
and
acin a
nursing
conditions
for the conduct
Among
acterized
by the freedom
in inquiry;
collegiality
bers in the scientific side the university; institution and human
repeatedly
these are environments
of doc-
in the lit-
that are char-
to explore ideas and engage and interaction
community
among
both within
philosophical
and material
and out-
commitment
to science; time to engage resources
memof the
in scholarship; (Woods,
1986),
settings
Doctoral
students
be unconventional assumptions
are ostensibly
being
and creative thinkers,
and traditions.
assisted
to
to challenge
They are expected
to de-
*Professor, Director of the Doctoral Program, and Associate Dean for Graduate Studies, School of Nursing, The University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI. Presented at the American Association of Colleges of Nursing Conference on Use of Creative Resources in an Era of Cost Containment, Sanibel Island, FL, February 1, 1990. Address correspondence and reprint requests to Dr Ketetian: School of Nursing, The University of Michigan, 400 N Ingalls, Ann Arbor, MI 48109. Copyright 0 1991 by W.B. Saunders Company 8755-7223/91/0702-0012$03.00/0
Journul of Professional Nursing, Vol 7, No 2 (March-April),
degree
to secondary
positions
for advanced
clinical
degree
expect that they will
development
identified
If doctoral
earlier,
to meet
program
education
for the the
and master’s
of knowledge.
on the At these
there is a set curriculum
objectives
from doctoral
which students
and
progress
and requirements.
student cannot
or
in a re-
students
be viewed as focusing
through
a college or university
settings, roles at the
undergraduate
typically
experiences
accept
and internalizing
and preservation
levels of study,
in
for basic practice
focuses on preparing
designed
grams
of educational
of new knowledge
transmission
graduates
practice-leadership
degree level study might
The
to faculty member be assumed
there is very little preparation
individuals
dissonance
are either not valued or
students
level.
search university
typically
to
importance.
in a variety
many of which prepare
transition
in ac-
that are requisite
It is the case that many doctoral
master’s
in creative
of cognitive
where these behaviors
faculty
of
shock” when they accept employment
in
easily, and
to equip these
for what they will face.
In a report
others.
ambiguity
they are successful
one might
a certain
and “reality
skills
toral study have been described erature.
of
1977).
The prerequisite
among
to preparation
and (b) serve in leadership
variety
in
there is general agreement
These
base for the field through
and plurality
to which
the frontiers
tasks that lack pre-
these skills and attitudes
are relegated
ESPITEthe existing
to deal with
ways. The extent quiring
and to push
of quality
in nursing,
very encouraging
assessment
Holtemer trends.
pared
over a 5-year
study
documented
(1987)
of doctoral
pro-
reported
some
Two data waves were com-
period increased
(1979 faculty
and
1984).
The
productivity
in
scholarly activities as measured by the indices of publications, presentations, and the like; student GPAs were higher
and their
career goals included
greater
interest in pursuit of research. While faculty reported a decrease in time spent in teaching, students perceived an increase in quality of teaching. Concurrent with this, both faculty and students reported an increase in perception of scholarly excellence of their program.
199 1: pp 105- 111
105
SHAKt KETEFIAN
106
TABLE
1.
Relevant Alumni (N = 294) Data from 1984 National Study
How well did program prepare you for your primary purpose (%)? 3 Not very well 34 Fairly well 61 Extremely well Have you published part of the dissertation (%)? 52 Yes 47 No Further research in area of dissertation (%) 62 Yes 38 No Current use of doctoral training (%) 1 Not at all 16 Some 30 Quite a bit 52 A great deal Do you consider yourself underemployed (%)? 6 Definitely 24 Somewhat 64 No Time from first enrollment to degree Average number of years = 5
individuals
when they assume a faculty position.
dean summed
in this manner
search university
holds of its faculty:
and on the whole,
reputation
of the institution;
knowledge,
for developing
intellectual contribute
doctoral
program
their program
prepared
citizens
for scholarship
and teaching;
published
part
pursuing
(Dumas,
personal
information
62 per cent are 82
relevant
in this con-
1.
The extent valid,
to which
the question
however,
nor is quality
important
of quality
necessarily
or even in a given program.
suggest
improvements
even
They do, over the
5-year period of the study: On the whole, our doctoral programs
are doing what they set out to do, what we
as a field have said we would like doctoral programs do. What
then is the problem,
to
and why does the is-
sue of preparation versus expectation arise? Is this a positive or a negative state of affairs? Where are the discrepancies,
if any, located?
What
might
be done
about it? In order to have a clear “fix” on the problem, needs to determine
and
of teachers, contributing
communication,
exactly what is expected
one
of these
*Data reported here are from the 1984 project titled “Quality Indicators of Nursing Doctoral Programs,” supported by the Department of Health and Human Services, Division of Nursing, 1 RO NU00967. Copyright 0 1984 by William L. Holzemer. This was the second part of J-year national doctoral program evaluation using the Graduate Program Self-Assessment questionnaire, administered by the Educational Testing Service (the first was done in 1979).
this
might
preparing
1990).
of
pect variations
set of expectations
is
be raised as to whether
we
doctoral
Each doctoral
to answer this question
These data do not address all indicators education,
the
well
these expectations.
in doctoral
and
is expected
what
training.
across programs
and will
community
one needs to determine
are adequately
in Table
that they
individuals when they assume a faculty position
believe that
in the area of the dissertation;
Additional
the
of the university the
practitioners,
per cent make quite a bit or a great deal of use of their text is presented
re-
and enliven
52 per cent have already
of the dissertation;
research
and financial
these
self-assessment*
them fairly or extremely
serve
scholars-scientists,
. . .
above, 95 per cent of alumni
the human
as role models to guide future generations
exactly In the national
as leaders in
will share respon-
and social life of the institution; to and
the
broader society; that in doing these, faculty will serve
Data from Holzemer (1984).
mentioned
themselves
their scholarship,
will share in the governance
con-
and promote
fields; that faculty
sources that support
to student
that faculty will develop
and distinguish
their respective sibility
uphold
a re-
The university
expects that faculty will teach, attend cerns,
One
the expectations
for itself,
students program
to meet will need
and one might
in how each of us respond
ex-
to this. Yet,
my guess is that we do a much better job of addressing some dimensions For example,
of these expectations
training
sized, but experiences the service mission develop
than
others.
for a research career is emphaon how one might
of an institution,
into an effective teacher,
contribute
to
how one might how to be an effec-
tive institutional citizen are on the whole de-emphasized. The fact is that research training is a necessary, but not sufficient
condition
for effective employment
as faculty on a university campus. The views of faculty and students
may be instruc-
tive in this regard. Faculty and student views about the perceived and desired emphasis on certain roles, using data from the 1984 national study, is summa-
Twenty-five of the 29 eligible doctoral nursing programs participated in the study; data were obtained from faculty, alumni, and students on 16 quality indicators. Each of the participating schools received a summary of these national data, and a confidential report of its own. In addition, Dr Holzemer has reported various aspects of this study in a series of articles.
107
DOCTORAL PREPARATION FOR FACULTY ROLES
rized in Table 2. Using statistical ucational
Testing
mation
about
manipulations,
Ed-
Service was able to provide
infor-
whether
same, or less emphasis complished emphasis
respondents for certain
by subtracting
It can be seen in Table dents
the
roles. This was ac-
current
desired
emphasis.
2 that the major current
in doctoral programs,
and faculty,
more,
the respondents’
from their perceived
emphasis
want
according
is on preparing
to both stu-
scholars
26 per cent of students
and re-
searchers,
although
emphasis
in this area. For the other roles, it can be
noted that large proportions students,
of faculty,
want more emphasis
and “other practitioner” gruence
(columns
and the discrepancy
and especially
on preparing
teachers
roles. Note the relative con-
of mean scores between
emphasis
want less
desired and current
plicity
TABLE 2.
program
fully
cannot
prepare
individuals
“practice”
world (here “practice”
educator).
This
situation
gap successfully. to incapacity. desirable
in other
It would be a concern only if it leads argue
that
it is not
do away with this gap since
one wants any new generation
to bring
new and fresh
ideas and lead the way by stimulating
discourse
and
the status quo.
In examining study,
disci-
Many people bridge this
One can further
to completely
challenging
for the
refers to the role of
is familiar
plines and fields of endeavor.
1 and
between our instructional
prepare our graduates
environment
holds
However,
some figures from the 1984 national
one can see discrepancies
between
what stu-
task to
for the multi-
that will be ex-
can arise when the emdifferent
values
than
this is by no means the
(Table 3). Note, preference
mary activity present
for example,
indicated
in which
alumni
for teaching
would
research and teaching,
with 36 per cent of alumni engage themselves.
and the pri-
are engaged
job; 64 per cent of students
research, or combine
the discrepancy
by students
in their like to do compared
who are indeed able to so
Similar discrepancies
and administration
can be noted
endeavors.
Also, note
Program Purpose Report: Data From 1984 National Study (Faculty N = 326; Student N = 642)
Preparing scholars and researchers Faculty
Students
Preparing teachers Faculty
Students
Preparing other practitioners Faculty
Students
of
and in the fact that the educational
uation
means in columns
pected of them? Discrepancies does the individual.
in the nature of responsibilities
faculty members,
between
of roles and responsibilities
ployment
arise. To some
1 and 2) for scholar preparation,
can we approach
more adequately
extent it is inherent
that might
dents expect to do, and what they in fact do on grad-
2 for other roles. How
sole basis of the difficulties
Perceived Current Emphasis
Desired Emphasis
x = 4.54 2% little 6% some 92% considerable x = 4.71 1% little 4% some 95% considerable
x = 4.72 0% little 2% some 98% considerable R = 4.57 1% little 6% some 93% considerable
Z = 2.92 33% little 37% some 30% considerable g = 2.87 35% little 35% some 29% considerable
x = 3.46 14% little 34% some 52% considerable x = 3.47 18% little 27% some 54% considerable
x = 2.72 42% little 31% some 26% considerable x = 2.71 42% little 33% some 24% considerable
R = 3.11 27% little 33% some 40% considerable x = 3.46 20% little 25% some 53% considerable
Desired Minus Current Emphasis
19% want more 70% want same 7% want less 12% want more 62% want same 26% want less
43% want more 52% want same 4% want less 50% want more 36% want same 13% want less
33% want more 60% want same 6% want less 51% want more 38% want same 9% want less
NOTE. ReSPOnSe format: 1, none; 2, little; 3, some; 4, considerable: 5, extreme; these were collapsed to three categories for the table, Data from Holzemer (1984).
108
TABLE 3.
SHAKE KETEFIAN
Relevant Data From 1984 National Study on Alumni and Students Alumni (N = 294)
Current employer (%) PhD-granting university 4-year college (non-PhD granting) Nonprofit agency Government Self-employed Other Primary activity in present job (%) Research Teaching-research Teaching Administration-management Professional service Other Primary purpose in pursuing degree (%) Preparation for scholarly research Preparation for teaching Preparation for research and teaching Preparation for professional practice Personal enrichment/other Postdoctoral study (%) Yes, have had, currently or in past No Preferred future employer (%) PhD-granting university 4-year college (non-PhD granting) Nonprofit agency Government Self-employed Other Preferred future primary job activity (%) Research Teaching-research Teaching Administration-management Professional service Other Postdoctoral study (%) Yes, would like definitely Yes, if appropriate employment not available No
Suggested Strategies for Easing Conflicting Role Demands
Students (N = 642)
Since I speak from the perspective prepare
these graduates,
sideration
55 20 12 4 3 4
to ease the situation
of approaches
9 27 36 20 3 2
majority
that
these already
this in mind
reality
primary
purpose
in pursuing
It is the case that, emphasize ulty
specifi-
efforts.
Since cost con-
of this conference,
my points.
5 95
in the main,
the provision
mentorship
scholarship. expanded
doctoral
of research
in research,
It is possible
and
programs
experiences,
fac-
socialization
for
that mentorship
needs to be
to other arenas of professional
life as well-
those that deal with the full range of tripartite 45 23 13 5 5 4 16 48 12 12 10 2 38 23 37
responses
the degree,
on their and their
current activity. The area of postdoctoral study presents another domain of discrepancy between student expectations and reality. While 61 per cent of students would like to do postdoctoral study, only 5 per cent of alumni have done so, or are currently so engaged. These figures ulty, by virtue way they have degree of role employment.
that relate to
INCLUSION OF RELEVANT EXPERIENCES
33 8 40 8 9
sions of a university: systematic
focus
research,
show that new doctorate-holding facof the expectations they hold and the been socialized, will have a certain conflict and disillusionment on their
teaching,
on developing
skills toward the service mission There are many opportunities to allow students ing assistant actively
appointments
cant experience of financial constraints, positions proach
is especially
and
lacking.
that
Formal teach-
enable
students
to
will provide
signifi-
as well as serve as an important
means
aid. However, cutbacks occur. assistant
haps in the junior
What
as schools face budgetary
in funding
teaching
assistant
are the alternatives?
positions, ranks,
salary
clinical
or indeed,
per-
students,
before (Anderson,
tried and evaluated,
to fund
faculty,
with graduate
on the extent
One ap-
budget
replacing
such as undergraduate
no data are available being
consciousness
that can be exploited
in teaching
is to use the faculty
teaching
mis-
service. Any
to engage in teaching.
participate
activities alumni
in
in all our lives, I will keep
as I develop
This has been suggested between
stu-
capability
are the focus of the
is a focal consideration
and an important
A number
are not addressed
of our instructional
tainment
Data from Holzemer (1984)
the discrepancy
to strengthen
in scholarship
given
that
provide
and service. Those experiences
competence cally,
somewhat.
can be used to consciously
dents selected experiences teaching
of programs
I will address areas for con-
for
laboratory.
1986), but
to which
this is
what the view
our community might have regarding this option. Experiences in teaching are provided through presentation to peers in the classroom and at professional conferences. Frequently, faculty members and students coauthor and copresent papers. The faculty member can guide students in preparing appropriately for these by incorporating pedagogic principles, preparation of audio-visual materials, and the like so that this is approached in a systematic and thoughtful manner. We frequently assist students with the substance of their presentations and ignore the approaches
DOCTORAL PREPARATION
and methods
that will make the presentation
and appealing. example
manage,
participating velopment
students
benefit
opportunity
the mentor
component
not used by many
faculty
members.
this can be mutually
and the doctoral supervision
student.
of master’s
beneficial An example
degree
shape public Selectively
policy
involving
vide valuable
bear one’s research on it; conference be used as opportunities
students
manuscripts
can provide and awareness
If done selec-
expected
to the mentor
of the doctorate.
important sponsibility the work.
discussion
would be particularly nal editors While
since they will be
at a different
level on the receipt
of.. . manuscripts on which ’ ‘fsculty sefve as referees can provide opportunities for stimulating dialogue . . .
of
dialogue
in the field. It is not abdicate
re-
for the evaluation
of
will enlighten
the issue.
It
useful to hear the views of jour-
There is evidence ulties experience members
role strain,
complaining
sibilities. cerned
in the literature
Deans about
responsibilities
administrators
Yet,
carrying
are carrying
respon-
are very
multiple
is a fact of professional
more of our students
fac-
and we hear many faculty
about their “different”
and
this.
that nursing
con-
roles and
life; more and
multiple
roles as
well.
in this regard. policy committees,
the university
level tends
many
to campus-wide
benefits
dent and institutional
their involvement
to be limited.
governance
POSTDOCTORAL STUDY
in nursThere
participation
at are
in stu-
issues.
As bachelor’s beginning-level
have successfully
evolved
a mul-
and roles; these individuals an integrated
and have the skills
to function
study
practice,
for beginning
science.
We tend
prepares
the doctorate
participation to forget
expectations
students prepares
for indi-
in the conduct
of
this and perhaps
place
on our new graduates;
post-
doctoral study is the generally accepted next step in other fields. The postdoctoral experience is a way of
Some faculty are quite effective in balancing of responsibilities
degree
viduals
unrealistic ROLE MODELING BY FACULTY
persona
positions,
for future roles.
we tend to involve doctoral students
ing program
titude
These
even if they have previ-
involving students with reviews
for doc-
One can debate the pros and cons of this,
and perhaps
review.
and
research pro-
or federal levels.
member
in the last analysis
issues,
of this kind is
for stimulating
that the faculty
to function
can
one’s thinking
the paper for publication faculty
on which faculty serve as referees
of what is emerging
then sending
to
presentations
or instructional
ously occupied
with reviews and evaluations
opportunities
theoretical
that perhaps is
at these arenas can pro-
to students
thorny
by bringing
to develop
for students
are very active in helping
students
can be enriched
can be helpful
student
at local, state,
experience
Involving journal
members
teaching
one role by the other.
activities,
to oversee.
Some faculty
but it enriches
in the de-
jects, where specific tasks can be identified toral students
of roles; this is not
For example,
or
is required
as opposed to the discrete conduct
and
at master’s degree
What
of responsibilities
about
levels is an approach
a sense of the total picture.
only efficient,
roles.
of students
is. Both awareness
of the faculty role is an integration This
with his or her advisement
responsibilities
or undergraduate
equiv-
for observing
management
yet undervalued
Assisting
from holding
with nurse executives.
of effective faculty
teaching
tively,
by
in professional
an important,
can go a long way in giving
or-
might
a unique
member
can be instructive
assistantships
can provide
tidy the role of a faculty
in which they themselves
and teach their courses.
Some students alent-type
effective
and selective involvement
Faculty members
in the manner
ganize,
109
FOR FACULTY ROLES
professional well within
organizations while at the same time pursuing their scholarship. Yet, there is a tendency to compartmentalize our dealings with students to the particular project that brought about the partnership, rather than allowing full exposure to what faculties do. While this is easier for students to deal with, it can create an unrealistic picture of how complex and un-
helping
people
mentorship them
to establish
doctoral
to solidify
their
of well-established students
a research
research
scientists program.
express the desire
under
the
and helping While
many
to pursue
post-
doctoral study, very few do indeed do this (Table 3). We need to more actively encourage students in this regard and assist them in locating opportunities. PRACTICE IN GOAL SETTING
Students long-term
can be consciously and short-term
assisted
to set both
specific goals for themselves
110
SHAKE KETEFIAN
in ways that are realistic.
They also need active assis-
tance from faculty in time-management note of realism and constant
practice
well in the future in setting
long-term
well as more immediate accomplished
techniques.
A
will serve them career goals as
goals for what needs to be
in a given time span.
our everyday different,
struggles,
and view our work from a
even loftier,
our efforts within
perspective;
it helps us place
a larger context.
Exchanges
faculty over time also open the possibility shared group
norms
about
important
then be passed on to students coherence
between
of evolving
issues that can
with a certain degree of
and consistency.
USE OF THE STUDENT CULTURE TO PROMOTE NORMS
Students
develop a culture
to operate quite effectively.
of their own that seems Typically,
fort on the part of the faculty conscious evolve
level.
their
proaches.
own
we interact
values,
norms,
this at a
ways students and
coping
The approaches pitfalls
ways of
1. The kinds of experiences
with individuals
available
or groups of students
we are exercising
ing opportunity.
is a teaching
and learn-
In order for this to be effective,
faculty as a group
need to be of a similar
the
mind with
regard to the norms and values to be inculcated. fortunately,
and
an influ-
only on those we are inter-
with; every encounter
above are not without
and risks; a few are identified
sume
pronouncements,
identified
here:
ap-
this. We need to be aware that each time
ence, and not necessarily acting
informal
It is possible that there are informal
influencing make
Through
there is no ef-
to influence
Problemsand Pitfalls in Implementingthe Above Strategles
Un-
that
nities.
things faculty
this is not always the case.
study,
Examples managing
of this are topics concerned
with ways of
one’s career and research trajectory,
the ad-
exploit
and
of these opportu-
with
trend
to-
some programs
close to a 100 per cent part-time body.
This means
working,
that students
parenting,
and have schedules members.
as tight as those of
This makes
opportunities
are
or doing other it more diffi-
cult for both faculty and students INCORPORATE IN CLASS DISCUSSIONS MATERIAL THAT DEALS WITH CAREER PLANNING AND MANAGING THE TRlPARTlTE RESPONSIBILITIES OF FACULTY
above pre-
be on-site
In fact, there is a growing
reporting student
will
to take advantage
ward part-time
typically
described
the student
to use and
that arise,
An important part of socialization is to . . develop ways of integrating conflicting demands in a satisfjdng manner. l
vantages
and issues related
and the like. An important understand fledged
the dilemma
scientist
social responsibilities
in being
is to a full-
professional
and
of the role, and to develop ways
conflicting
manner.
students
careful discriminations to seek employment
research,
part of socialization inherent
and the attendant
of integrating Also,
to collaborative
demands
in a satisfying
need assistance
in making
between various job offers, and in settings that are congruent
with their career goals. DISCUSSION OF MAJOR REPORTS
2. There is danger
that some faculties
dicate their responsibilities
might
ab-
and hand their work
to doctoral students instead of overseeing it as a growth experience. One way to avoid this is for students
and faculty
to negotiate
what each of them will do, develop
in advance timelines,
and adhere to them.
3. Many doctoral programs
at the moment
have a
Identify relevant papers and national reports that have bearing on our work, make these available to
mature doctoral student body. In the last few years we have noted that our newly admitted
faculty and/or students, and provide opportunities for discussion of the issues raised. An example of this is
students have a mean age of 35 to 40. We offer a postbaccalaureate PhD; despite this, the majority of applicants and those admitted have
the recent report from the National Academy of Sciences (1989), On Beingu Scientist. This report discusses the methods and values of science and raises a number of interesting issues that can stimulate discourse. Other examples include national reports on the nursing shortage, reports on higher education, etc. This type of approach helps us take a respite from
master’s degrees, with approximately 6 to 10 years of work experience following it. They are seasoned professionals in many ways and their supervision is a pleasure for most faculty; there is most definitely a peer relationship among students and faculty. When the trends change in
DOCTORAL
PREPARATION
111
FOR FACULTY ROLES
our field, and they are bound to do so, and 2 l-year-old graduates begin entering doctoral study, the types of experiences I have described will be more time-consuming both for faculty and students. Different approaches may then be required, although this will likely present new opportunities of its own. 4. In making assignments to doctoral level courses and research advisement there is always a risk, a dilemma, when one assigns faculty members who themselves are still struggling with ways of integrating their different roles and are in the process of establishing themselves as scholars and teachers. 5. By the time they complete degree requirements, dents,
many
students
are weary of being
stu-
term perspective. We also need to examine the length of time it takes students to graduate; perhaps if we shorten the number of years (national mean is 5 years, see Table l), there might be greater energy and enthusiasm for postdoctoral training. None of the measures I have identified will fully prepare individuals for the complex faculty roles that await them. We must inculcate an ethos for lifelong learning as well as an ongoing need for self-renewal. These attitudes, combined with the strategies mentioned above, will provide students with a sound foundation to build on, enabling them to benefit from the assistance that employing institutions or senior colleagues might provide.
and ready to earn a decent wage and the
attendant
perks it promises;
thus,
of another year or two of postdoctoral not seem appealing. is a personal
This,
decision.
can help students
Yet,
study does
in the long analysis, faculty
Acknowledgment
the prospect
counseling
see this in a broader,
long-
The author expresses appreciation to Rhetaugh G. Dumas, Lillian Simms, and Reg Williams, of the School of Nursing, the University of Michigan, for their thoughtful comments on an earlier draft of this article.
References Anderson, C. (1986). Student support: Relationship to quality indicators. In Proceedings of the national forum on doctoral education in nursing (pp. 155-168). San Francisco: The University of California. Committee on the Conduct of Science, National Academy of Sciences. (1989). On being a scientist. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press. Crowiey, D. M. (1977). Theoretical and pragmatic issues related to the goals of doctoral education in nursing. In Promdings of thefirst national conferenceon doctoraleducationin
nursing (pp. 25-29). Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania.
School of Nursing,
The
Holzemer, W. L. (1987). Doctoral education in nursing: An assessment of quality, 1979-1984. Nursing Reseurch, 36, 111-116. Woods, N. (1986). Dimensions of the scholarly environment: Context for creativity. In Prowlings of the national forum on doctoral education in nursing (pp. 189-195). San Francisco: The University of California.
The purpose of this report is to clarify the issues and discongruities between educational preparation of doctoral program graduates and employer expectations (educational institutions), and to stimulate thinking concerning strategies that might bs used by doctoral programs to more effectively prepare graduates to deal with an integrated professional role, including that of faculty. (Index words: Doctoral education; Faculty roles; Professional roles) J Prof Nurs 7:105-711, 1991. Copyright 0 1997 by WB. Saunders Company
velop skills
of inquiry
knowledge,
to tackle intellectual and
scription,
D
diversity
doctoral education,
as to broad
goals.
pertain
nurses who will (a) expand tivities,
of arenas
(Crowley,
the scientific
within
knowledge
research and scholarly the
capacities
society
careers as scientists, experience
and
acin a
nursing
conditions
for the conduct
Among
acterized
by the freedom
in inquiry;
collegiality
bers in the scientific side the university; institution and human
repeatedly
these are environments
of doc-
in the lit-
that are char-
to explore ideas and engage and interaction
community
among
both within
philosophical
and material
and out-
commitment
to science; time to engage resources
memof the
in scholarship; (Woods,
1986),
settings
Doctoral
students
be unconventional assumptions
are ostensibly
being
and creative thinkers,
and traditions.
assisted
to
to challenge
They are expected
to de-
*Professor, Director of the Doctoral Program, and Associate Dean for Graduate Studies, School of Nursing, The University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI. Presented at the American Association of Colleges of Nursing Conference on Use of Creative Resources in an Era of Cost Containment, Sanibel Island, FL, February 1, 1990. Address correspondence and reprint requests to Dr Ketetian: School of Nursing, The University of Michigan, 400 N Ingalls, Ann Arbor, MI 48109. Copyright 0 1991 by W.B. Saunders Company 8755-7223/91/0702-0012$03.00/0
Journul of Professional Nursing, Vol 7, No 2 (March-April),
degree
to secondary
positions
for advanced
clinical
degree
expect that they will
development
identified
If doctoral
earlier,
to meet
program
education
for the the
and master’s
of knowledge.
on the At these
there is a set curriculum
objectives
from doctoral
which students
and
progress
and requirements.
student cannot
or
in a re-
students
be viewed as focusing
through
a college or university
settings, roles at the
undergraduate
typically
experiences
accept
and internalizing
and preservation
levels of study,
in
for basic practice
focuses on preparing
designed
grams
of educational
of new knowledge
transmission
graduates
practice-leadership
degree level study might
The
to faculty member be assumed
there is very little preparation
individuals
dissonance
are either not valued or
students
level.
search university
typically
to
importance.
in a variety
many of which prepare
transition
in ac-
that are requisite
It is the case that many doctoral
master’s
in creative
of cognitive
where these behaviors
faculty
of
shock” when they accept employment
in
easily, and
to equip these
for what they will face.
In a report
others.
ambiguity
they are successful
one might
a certain
and “reality
skills
toral study have been described erature.
of
1977).
The prerequisite
among
to preparation
and (b) serve in leadership
variety
in
there is general agreement
These
base for the field through
and plurality
to which
the frontiers
tasks that lack pre-
these skills and attitudes
are relegated
ESPITEthe existing
to deal with
ways. The extent quiring
and to push
of quality
in nursing,
very encouraging
assessment
Holtemer trends.
pared
over a 5-year
study
documented
(1987)
of doctoral
pro-
reported
some
Two data waves were com-
period increased
(1979 faculty
and
1984).
The
productivity
in
scholarly activities as measured by the indices of publications, presentations, and the like; student GPAs were higher
and their
career goals included
greater
interest in pursuit of research. While faculty reported a decrease in time spent in teaching, students perceived an increase in quality of teaching. Concurrent with this, both faculty and students reported an increase in perception of scholarly excellence of their program.
199 1: pp 105- 111
105
SHAKt KETEFIAN
106
TABLE
1.
Relevant Alumni (N = 294) Data from 1984 National Study
How well did program prepare you for your primary purpose (%)? 3 Not very well 34 Fairly well 61 Extremely well Have you published part of the dissertation (%)? 52 Yes 47 No Further research in area of dissertation (%) 62 Yes 38 No Current use of doctoral training (%) 1 Not at all 16 Some 30 Quite a bit 52 A great deal Do you consider yourself underemployed (%)? 6 Definitely 24 Somewhat 64 No Time from first enrollment to degree Average number of years = 5
individuals
when they assume a faculty position.
dean summed
in this manner
search university
holds of its faculty:
and on the whole,
reputation
of the institution;
knowledge,
for developing
intellectual contribute
doctoral
program
their program
prepared
citizens
for scholarship
and teaching;
published
part
pursuing
(Dumas,
personal
information
62 per cent are 82
relevant
in this con-
1.
The extent valid,
to which
the question
however,
nor is quality
important
of quality
necessarily
or even in a given program.
suggest
improvements
even
They do, over the
5-year period of the study: On the whole, our doctoral programs
are doing what they set out to do, what we
as a field have said we would like doctoral programs do. What
then is the problem,
to
and why does the is-
sue of preparation versus expectation arise? Is this a positive or a negative state of affairs? Where are the discrepancies,
if any, located?
What
might
be done
about it? In order to have a clear “fix” on the problem, needs to determine
and
of teachers, contributing
communication,
exactly what is expected
one
of these
*Data reported here are from the 1984 project titled “Quality Indicators of Nursing Doctoral Programs,” supported by the Department of Health and Human Services, Division of Nursing, 1 RO NU00967. Copyright 0 1984 by William L. Holzemer. This was the second part of J-year national doctoral program evaluation using the Graduate Program Self-Assessment questionnaire, administered by the Educational Testing Service (the first was done in 1979).
this
might
preparing
1990).
of
pect variations
set of expectations
is
be raised as to whether
we
doctoral
Each doctoral
to answer this question
These data do not address all indicators education,
the
well
these expectations.
in doctoral
and
is expected
what
training.
across programs
and will
community
one needs to determine
are adequately
in Table
that they
individuals when they assume a faculty position
believe that
in the area of the dissertation;
Additional
the
of the university the
practitioners,
per cent make quite a bit or a great deal of use of their text is presented
re-
and enliven
52 per cent have already
of the dissertation;
research
and financial
these
self-assessment*
them fairly or extremely
serve
scholars-scientists,
. . .
above, 95 per cent of alumni
the human
as role models to guide future generations
exactly In the national
as leaders in
will share respon-
and social life of the institution; to and
the
broader society; that in doing these, faculty will serve
Data from Holzemer (1984).
mentioned
themselves
their scholarship,
will share in the governance
con-
and promote
fields; that faculty
sources that support
to student
that faculty will develop
and distinguish
their respective sibility
uphold
a re-
The university
expects that faculty will teach, attend cerns,
One
the expectations
for itself,
students program
to meet will need
and one might
in how each of us respond
ex-
to this. Yet,
my guess is that we do a much better job of addressing some dimensions For example,
of these expectations
training
sized, but experiences the service mission develop
than
others.
for a research career is emphaon how one might
of an institution,
into an effective teacher,
contribute
to
how one might how to be an effec-
tive institutional citizen are on the whole de-emphasized. The fact is that research training is a necessary, but not sufficient
condition
for effective employment
as faculty on a university campus. The views of faculty and students
may be instruc-
tive in this regard. Faculty and student views about the perceived and desired emphasis on certain roles, using data from the 1984 national study, is summa-
Twenty-five of the 29 eligible doctoral nursing programs participated in the study; data were obtained from faculty, alumni, and students on 16 quality indicators. Each of the participating schools received a summary of these national data, and a confidential report of its own. In addition, Dr Holzemer has reported various aspects of this study in a series of articles.
107
DOCTORAL PREPARATION FOR FACULTY ROLES
rized in Table 2. Using statistical ucational
Testing
mation
about
manipulations,
Ed-
Service was able to provide
infor-
whether
same, or less emphasis complished emphasis
respondents for certain
by subtracting
It can be seen in Table dents
the
roles. This was ac-
current
desired
emphasis.
2 that the major current
in doctoral programs,
and faculty,
more,
the respondents’
from their perceived
emphasis
want
according
is on preparing
to both stu-
scholars
26 per cent of students
and re-
searchers,
although
emphasis
in this area. For the other roles, it can be
noted that large proportions students,
of faculty,
want more emphasis
and “other practitioner” gruence
(columns
and the discrepancy
and especially
on preparing
teachers
roles. Note the relative con-
of mean scores between
emphasis
want less
desired and current
plicity
TABLE 2.
program
fully
cannot
prepare
individuals
“practice”
world (here “practice”
educator).
This
situation
gap successfully. to incapacity. desirable
in other
It would be a concern only if it leads argue
that
it is not
do away with this gap since
one wants any new generation
to bring
new and fresh
ideas and lead the way by stimulating
discourse
and
the status quo.
In examining study,
disci-
Many people bridge this
One can further
to completely
challenging
for the
refers to the role of
is familiar
plines and fields of endeavor.
1 and
between our instructional
prepare our graduates
environment
holds
However,
some figures from the 1984 national
one can see discrepancies
between
what stu-
task to
for the multi-
that will be ex-
can arise when the emdifferent
values
than
this is by no means the
(Table 3). Note, preference
mary activity present
for example,
indicated
in which
alumni
for teaching
would
research and teaching,
with 36 per cent of alumni engage themselves.
and the pri-
are engaged
job; 64 per cent of students
research, or combine
the discrepancy
by students
in their like to do compared
who are indeed able to so
Similar discrepancies
and administration
can be noted
endeavors.
Also, note
Program Purpose Report: Data From 1984 National Study (Faculty N = 326; Student N = 642)
Preparing scholars and researchers Faculty
Students
Preparing teachers Faculty
Students
Preparing other practitioners Faculty
Students
of
and in the fact that the educational
uation
means in columns
pected of them? Discrepancies does the individual.
in the nature of responsibilities
faculty members,
between
of roles and responsibilities
ployment
arise. To some
1 and 2) for scholar preparation,
can we approach
more adequately
extent it is inherent
that might
dents expect to do, and what they in fact do on grad-
2 for other roles. How
sole basis of the difficulties
Perceived Current Emphasis
Desired Emphasis
x = 4.54 2% little 6% some 92% considerable x = 4.71 1% little 4% some 95% considerable
x = 4.72 0% little 2% some 98% considerable R = 4.57 1% little 6% some 93% considerable
Z = 2.92 33% little 37% some 30% considerable g = 2.87 35% little 35% some 29% considerable
x = 3.46 14% little 34% some 52% considerable x = 3.47 18% little 27% some 54% considerable
x = 2.72 42% little 31% some 26% considerable x = 2.71 42% little 33% some 24% considerable
R = 3.11 27% little 33% some 40% considerable x = 3.46 20% little 25% some 53% considerable
Desired Minus Current Emphasis
19% want more 70% want same 7% want less 12% want more 62% want same 26% want less
43% want more 52% want same 4% want less 50% want more 36% want same 13% want less
33% want more 60% want same 6% want less 51% want more 38% want same 9% want less
NOTE. ReSPOnSe format: 1, none; 2, little; 3, some; 4, considerable: 5, extreme; these were collapsed to three categories for the table, Data from Holzemer (1984).
108
TABLE 3.
SHAKE KETEFIAN
Relevant Data From 1984 National Study on Alumni and Students Alumni (N = 294)
Current employer (%) PhD-granting university 4-year college (non-PhD granting) Nonprofit agency Government Self-employed Other Primary activity in present job (%) Research Teaching-research Teaching Administration-management Professional service Other Primary purpose in pursuing degree (%) Preparation for scholarly research Preparation for teaching Preparation for research and teaching Preparation for professional practice Personal enrichment/other Postdoctoral study (%) Yes, have had, currently or in past No Preferred future employer (%) PhD-granting university 4-year college (non-PhD granting) Nonprofit agency Government Self-employed Other Preferred future primary job activity (%) Research Teaching-research Teaching Administration-management Professional service Other Postdoctoral study (%) Yes, would like definitely Yes, if appropriate employment not available No
Suggested Strategies for Easing Conflicting Role Demands
Students (N = 642)
Since I speak from the perspective prepare
these graduates,
sideration
55 20 12 4 3 4
to ease the situation
of approaches
9 27 36 20 3 2
majority
that
these already
this in mind
reality
primary
purpose
in pursuing
It is the case that, emphasize ulty
specifi-
efforts.
Since cost con-
of this conference,
my points.
5 95
in the main,
the provision
mentorship
scholarship. expanded
doctoral
of research
in research,
It is possible
and
programs
experiences,
fac-
socialization
for
that mentorship
needs to be
to other arenas of professional
life as well-
those that deal with the full range of tripartite 45 23 13 5 5 4 16 48 12 12 10 2 38 23 37
responses
the degree,
on their and their
current activity. The area of postdoctoral study presents another domain of discrepancy between student expectations and reality. While 61 per cent of students would like to do postdoctoral study, only 5 per cent of alumni have done so, or are currently so engaged. These figures ulty, by virtue way they have degree of role employment.
that relate to
INCLUSION OF RELEVANT EXPERIENCES
33 8 40 8 9
sions of a university: systematic
focus
research,
show that new doctorate-holding facof the expectations they hold and the been socialized, will have a certain conflict and disillusionment on their
teaching,
on developing
skills toward the service mission There are many opportunities to allow students ing assistant actively
appointments
cant experience of financial constraints, positions proach
is especially
and
lacking.
that
Formal teach-
enable
students
to
will provide
signifi-
as well as serve as an important
means
aid. However, cutbacks occur. assistant
haps in the junior
What
as schools face budgetary
in funding
teaching
assistant
are the alternatives?
positions, ranks,
salary
clinical
or indeed,
per-
students,
before (Anderson,
tried and evaluated,
to fund
faculty,
with graduate
on the extent
One ap-
budget
replacing
such as undergraduate
no data are available being
consciousness
that can be exploited
in teaching
is to use the faculty
teaching
mis-
service. Any
to engage in teaching.
participate
activities alumni
in
in all our lives, I will keep
as I develop
This has been suggested between
stu-
capability
are the focus of the
is a focal consideration
and an important
A number
are not addressed
of our instructional
tainment
Data from Holzemer (1984)
the discrepancy
to strengthen
in scholarship
given
that
provide
and service. Those experiences
competence cally,
somewhat.
can be used to consciously
dents selected experiences teaching
of programs
I will address areas for con-
for
laboratory.
1986), but
to which
this is
what the view
our community might have regarding this option. Experiences in teaching are provided through presentation to peers in the classroom and at professional conferences. Frequently, faculty members and students coauthor and copresent papers. The faculty member can guide students in preparing appropriately for these by incorporating pedagogic principles, preparation of audio-visual materials, and the like so that this is approached in a systematic and thoughtful manner. We frequently assist students with the substance of their presentations and ignore the approaches
DOCTORAL PREPARATION
and methods
that will make the presentation
and appealing. example
manage,
participating velopment
students
benefit
opportunity
the mentor
component
not used by many
faculty
members.
this can be mutually
and the doctoral supervision
student.
of master’s
beneficial An example
degree
shape public Selectively
policy
involving
vide valuable
bear one’s research on it; conference be used as opportunities
students
manuscripts
can provide and awareness
If done selec-
expected
to the mentor
of the doctorate.
important sponsibility the work.
discussion
would be particularly nal editors While
since they will be
at a different
level on the receipt
of.. . manuscripts on which ’ ‘fsculty sefve as referees can provide opportunities for stimulating dialogue . . .
of
dialogue
in the field. It is not abdicate
re-
for the evaluation
of
will enlighten
the issue.
It
useful to hear the views of jour-
There is evidence ulties experience members
role strain,
complaining
sibilities. cerned
in the literature
Deans about
responsibilities
administrators
Yet,
carrying
are carrying
respon-
are very
multiple
is a fact of professional
more of our students
fac-
and we hear many faculty
about their “different”
and
this.
that nursing
con-
roles and
life; more and
multiple
roles as
well.
in this regard. policy committees,
the university
level tends
many
to campus-wide
benefits
dent and institutional
their involvement
to be limited.
governance
POSTDOCTORAL STUDY
in nursThere
participation
at are
in stu-
issues.
As bachelor’s beginning-level
have successfully
evolved
a mul-
and roles; these individuals an integrated
and have the skills
to function
study
practice,
for beginning
science.
We tend
prepares
the doctorate
participation to forget
expectations
students prepares
for indi-
in the conduct
of
this and perhaps
place
on our new graduates;
post-
doctoral study is the generally accepted next step in other fields. The postdoctoral experience is a way of
Some faculty are quite effective in balancing of responsibilities
degree
viduals
unrealistic ROLE MODELING BY FACULTY
persona
positions,
for future roles.
we tend to involve doctoral students
ing program
titude
These
even if they have previ-
involving students with reviews
for doc-
One can debate the pros and cons of this,
and perhaps
review.
and
research pro-
or federal levels.
member
in the last analysis
issues,
of this kind is
for stimulating
that the faculty
to function
can
one’s thinking
the paper for publication faculty
on which faculty serve as referees
of what is emerging
then sending
to
presentations
or instructional
ously occupied
with reviews and evaluations
opportunities
theoretical
that perhaps is
at these arenas can pro-
to students
thorny
by bringing
to develop
for students
are very active in helping
students
can be enriched
can be helpful
student
at local, state,
experience
Involving journal
members
teaching
one role by the other.
activities,
to oversee.
Some faculty
but it enriches
in the de-
jects, where specific tasks can be identified toral students
of roles; this is not
For example,
or
is required
as opposed to the discrete conduct
and
at master’s degree
What
of responsibilities
about
levels is an approach
a sense of the total picture.
only efficient,
roles.
of students
is. Both awareness
of the faculty role is an integration This
with his or her advisement
responsibilities
or undergraduate
equiv-
for observing
management
yet undervalued
Assisting
from holding
with nurse executives.
of effective faculty
teaching
tively,
by
in professional
an important,
can go a long way in giving
or-
might
a unique
member
can be instructive
assistantships
can provide
tidy the role of a faculty
in which they themselves
and teach their courses.
Some students alent-type
effective
and selective involvement
Faculty members
in the manner
ganize,
109
FOR FACULTY ROLES
professional well within
organizations while at the same time pursuing their scholarship. Yet, there is a tendency to compartmentalize our dealings with students to the particular project that brought about the partnership, rather than allowing full exposure to what faculties do. While this is easier for students to deal with, it can create an unrealistic picture of how complex and un-
helping
people
mentorship them
to establish
doctoral
to solidify
their
of well-established students
a research
research
scientists program.
express the desire
under
the
and helping While
many
to pursue
post-
doctoral study, very few do indeed do this (Table 3). We need to more actively encourage students in this regard and assist them in locating opportunities. PRACTICE IN GOAL SETTING
Students long-term
can be consciously and short-term
assisted
to set both
specific goals for themselves
110
SHAKE KETEFIAN
in ways that are realistic.
They also need active assis-
tance from faculty in time-management note of realism and constant
practice
well in the future in setting
long-term
well as more immediate accomplished
techniques.
A
will serve them career goals as
goals for what needs to be
in a given time span.
our everyday different,
struggles,
and view our work from a
even loftier,
our efforts within
perspective;
it helps us place
a larger context.
Exchanges
faculty over time also open the possibility shared group
norms
about
important
then be passed on to students coherence
between
of evolving
issues that can
with a certain degree of
and consistency.
USE OF THE STUDENT CULTURE TO PROMOTE NORMS
Students
develop a culture
to operate quite effectively.
of their own that seems Typically,
fort on the part of the faculty conscious evolve
level.
their
proaches.
own
we interact
values,
norms,
this at a
ways students and
coping
The approaches pitfalls
ways of
1. The kinds of experiences
with individuals
available
or groups of students
we are exercising
ing opportunity.
is a teaching
and learn-
In order for this to be effective,
faculty as a group
need to be of a similar
the
mind with
regard to the norms and values to be inculcated. fortunately,
and
an influ-
only on those we are inter-
with; every encounter
above are not without
and risks; a few are identified
sume
pronouncements,
identified
here:
ap-
this. We need to be aware that each time
ence, and not necessarily acting
informal
It is possible that there are informal
influencing make
Through
there is no ef-
to influence
Problemsand Pitfalls in Implementingthe Above Strategles
Un-
that
nities.
things faculty
this is not always the case.
study,
Examples managing
of this are topics concerned
with ways of
one’s career and research trajectory,
the ad-
exploit
and
of these opportu-
with
trend
to-
some programs
close to a 100 per cent part-time body.
This means
working,
that students
parenting,
and have schedules members.
as tight as those of
This makes
opportunities
are
or doing other it more diffi-
cult for both faculty and students INCORPORATE IN CLASS DISCUSSIONS MATERIAL THAT DEALS WITH CAREER PLANNING AND MANAGING THE TRlPARTlTE RESPONSIBILITIES OF FACULTY
above pre-
be on-site
In fact, there is a growing
reporting student
will
to take advantage
ward part-time
typically
described
the student
to use and
that arise,
An important part of socialization is to . . develop ways of integrating conflicting demands in a satisfjdng manner. l
vantages
and issues related
and the like. An important understand fledged
the dilemma
scientist
social responsibilities
in being
is to a full-
professional
and
of the role, and to develop ways
conflicting
manner.
students
careful discriminations to seek employment
research,
part of socialization inherent
and the attendant
of integrating Also,
to collaborative
demands
in a satisfying
need assistance
in making
between various job offers, and in settings that are congruent
with their career goals. DISCUSSION OF MAJOR REPORTS
2. There is danger
that some faculties
dicate their responsibilities
might
ab-
and hand their work
to doctoral students instead of overseeing it as a growth experience. One way to avoid this is for students
and faculty
to negotiate
what each of them will do, develop
in advance timelines,
and adhere to them.
3. Many doctoral programs
at the moment
have a
Identify relevant papers and national reports that have bearing on our work, make these available to
mature doctoral student body. In the last few years we have noted that our newly admitted
faculty and/or students, and provide opportunities for discussion of the issues raised. An example of this is
students have a mean age of 35 to 40. We offer a postbaccalaureate PhD; despite this, the majority of applicants and those admitted have
the recent report from the National Academy of Sciences (1989), On Beingu Scientist. This report discusses the methods and values of science and raises a number of interesting issues that can stimulate discourse. Other examples include national reports on the nursing shortage, reports on higher education, etc. This type of approach helps us take a respite from
master’s degrees, with approximately 6 to 10 years of work experience following it. They are seasoned professionals in many ways and their supervision is a pleasure for most faculty; there is most definitely a peer relationship among students and faculty. When the trends change in
DOCTORAL
PREPARATION
111
FOR FACULTY ROLES
our field, and they are bound to do so, and 2 l-year-old graduates begin entering doctoral study, the types of experiences I have described will be more time-consuming both for faculty and students. Different approaches may then be required, although this will likely present new opportunities of its own. 4. In making assignments to doctoral level courses and research advisement there is always a risk, a dilemma, when one assigns faculty members who themselves are still struggling with ways of integrating their different roles and are in the process of establishing themselves as scholars and teachers. 5. By the time they complete degree requirements, dents,
many
students
are weary of being
stu-
term perspective. We also need to examine the length of time it takes students to graduate; perhaps if we shorten the number of years (national mean is 5 years, see Table l), there might be greater energy and enthusiasm for postdoctoral training. None of the measures I have identified will fully prepare individuals for the complex faculty roles that await them. We must inculcate an ethos for lifelong learning as well as an ongoing need for self-renewal. These attitudes, combined with the strategies mentioned above, will provide students with a sound foundation to build on, enabling them to benefit from the assistance that employing institutions or senior colleagues might provide.
and ready to earn a decent wage and the
attendant
perks it promises;
thus,
of another year or two of postdoctoral not seem appealing. is a personal
This,
decision.
can help students
Yet,
study does
in the long analysis, faculty
Acknowledgment
the prospect
counseling
see this in a broader,
long-
The author expresses appreciation to Rhetaugh G. Dumas, Lillian Simms, and Reg Williams, of the School of Nursing, the University of Michigan, for their thoughtful comments on an earlier draft of this article.
References Anderson, C. (1986). Student support: Relationship to quality indicators. In Proceedings of the national forum on doctoral education in nursing (pp. 155-168). San Francisco: The University of California. Committee on the Conduct of Science, National Academy of Sciences. (1989). On being a scientist. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press. Crowiey, D. M. (1977). Theoretical and pragmatic issues related to the goals of doctoral education in nursing. In Promdings of thefirst national conferenceon doctoraleducationin
nursing (pp. 25-29). Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania.
School of Nursing,
The
Holzemer, W. L. (1987). Doctoral education in nursing: An assessment of quality, 1979-1984. Nursing Reseurch, 36, 111-116. Woods, N. (1986). Dimensions of the scholarly environment: Context for creativity. In Prowlings of the national forum on doctoral education in nursing (pp. 189-195). San Francisco: The University of California.
