Psychological Reports, 1977,41, 531-541. @ Psychological Reports 1977
DEVELOPMENTAL SELF-CONCEPT AND (SELF-REPORTED) DRUG USE LEONARD W. FERGUSON, MARILYN FREEDMAN, AND
EDITH P. FERGUSON Ohio Universiiy
Sumnmy.-Authors describe two adjecrival, pair-comparisons, self-concept scales (one for males, one for females). Both reflect development in selfconcept during adolescence. Both cross-validate. Both predict concurrent, selfreported drug-use behavior: beer and wine, cigarettes, hard liquor, marijuana (males only), and LSD (males only).
Pressey and Pressey ( 1919) may not have been the first, but they were early among psychologists who attempted to construct a t&t (wich developmental-type norms) to measure, in a "systematic manner, individual differences in interests and emotional make-up." The test the Presseys utilized was called the X - 0 (or Cross Out) test; it consisted of four parts; and each part contained lists of words. Each part contained 25 lists, and each list contained five or six words. Instructions told a respondent to cross out, in Part I, any word with an unpleasant meaning; in Part 11, any word after the first associated (in any way) with that first word; in Part 111, any "worry;" and, in part IV, anything considered wrong (in a moral sense). After trying several scoring methods, Pressey and Pressey (1933) dassified each word as "mature" or "immature." A word was "mature," i.e., implied "maturity," if the proportion of respndents crossing it out decreased with rising grade level (from Grade 5 to Grade 1 2 ) . It was "immature," i.e., implied "immaturity," if the proportion of respondents crossing it out increased wich grade level. A respondent who crossed out more "mature" words than "immature" words earned a negative score. A respondent who crossed out more "immature" words than "mature" words earned a positive score. For both sexes mean score showed a marked, inverse correlation with grade level. From the 5th grade to the 12th mean scores for boys were 161, 132, 100, 65, 51, 39, 27, and 16; for girls, 168,121,96,79,65,54,40, and 25 (Pressey & Pressey, 1933). Subsequent to Pressey and Pressey's early work, Pressey and Chambers ( 1920), Pressey ( 192 1) , Chambers ( 1925 ) , and others expanded the data base to such an extent that Stone and Barker ( 1937, 1939) attempted to use the X - 0 (and other) interest-and-attitude items-many from Sullivan (1934)-to develop a scale capable of distinguishing postmenarcheal girls from premenarcheal girls (age held constant). Stone and Barker found a few discriminating items (more than chance would allow) but in large part the results were negative. Those negative results caused Stone and Barker to abandon their planned at-
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tempt to develop a "psychometric" test that would yield scores after an important life event (first mensis) different from scores before that life event (CA held constant). Implications From the foregoing studies, two implications emerge: ( a ) a developmental trend may exhibit itself only over a period of years and, perhaps, ( b ) it cannot be discovered by comparing responses of those who have just passed a significant life event with those, of the same age, who have not reached that event. These (possible) implications are mentioned because they seem to have been overlooked in recent years, overshadowed by the fact that the X - 0 test no longer (for many reasons) enjoys widespread use. See Pressey (1946) and Pressey and Jones (1955). Additional Studies on Age-related Variables Although not inspired by X - 0 test results, Strong (1931, 1933, 1943, pp. 247-285), in his measurment of interest maturity, and Terman and Miles ( 1936), in their measurement of masculinity-femininity, secured test scores that correlate with age. Strong.-To develop his scale of interest maturity, Strong compared the interests of 55-yr.-old men with those of 15-yr.-old b q s ; later, those of 25-yr.old men with those of 15-yr.-old boys. The resulcs were scales that permit a respondent to determine how nearly "mature" his interests are, i.e., how dose to those of 55-yr.-old, or 25-yr.-old, men, or how "immature" (how close to those of 15-yr.-old boys). T e r m n and Miles.-Terman and Miles (1936, pp. 122-156) did not use criterion groups selected primarily on the basis of age but on the basis of sex. Despite chat fact, when scaling work was complete, they found that MF scores did, indeed, change with age. From the 8th grade to the 11th grade for males and from the 8th grade to the 14th grade (college sophomore) for females, mean score increased, i.e., implied a more-masculine orientation; from the higher ages indicated, mean score declined, i.e., implied a more-feminine orientation. Fwfey, Sul1iuan.-In the late 1920s and early 1930s, Furfey (1926, 1927, 1928, 1930a, 1930b, 1931) devised for boys, and Sullivan (1934) for girls, scales to measure developmental age, i.e., ". . . maturity of personality which shows itself in a changing interest in amusements, a changing reaction toward other persons, and in general a changing type of personality." Each scale consisted of six sections (in pair-comparisons format) asking a respondent to choose between two ( a ) things to do, ( b ) things to be when you grow up, ( c ) books to read, ( d ) things to have, ( 4 ) things to see, and ( f ) things to think about. Each section contained from 25 to 40 items, and each item in each section exhibited change (as a self-descriptor) over the span from 8 yr. of age to 18. Mean scores for males (from age 8 to 18 yr.) were 73, 81, 92,98, 108, 123,
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138, 152, 164, 163, and 163. Mean scores for females were 72, 84,94, 112, 135, 149, 159,168,168, and 168. In both series increase continued until age 16. Sullivan did n o cross-validation but Furfey did. As indicated earlier, Stone and Barker ( 1937, 1939) used some of Sullivan's (1934) items, but that fact did not help them in devising a scale to distinguish between same-age postmenarcheal and premenarcheal girls. Others who have attempted to show thac personality changes systematically in the teenage span of years are Black (1965), Schaie (1966), Sealy and Cattell (1966), Berdie ( 1968), Sage ( 1968 ) , and Offer, Marcus, and Offer ( 1970). 0ffer, Marcus, a d Offer.-From a clinical standpoint, the most significant of the studies cited is that by Offer, Marcus, and Offer (1970). They report results of a longitudinal srudy (over a 7-yr. span) of "normal adolescent boys" and discuss, primarily on a case basis, changes in independence, heterosexual activity, social radicalism, identity formation and identiry consolidation, selfsatisfaction, parent-son relations, drug experiences, and social activities; but they provide no over-all quantitative summary of "developmental" change. Sealy and Cattell.-Sealy and Cattell (1966) report significant linear agerelated trends on each of six (out of 11) factor-derived personaliry scores over the age span 11 to 23-affectothymia ( increase), self-sufficiency ( increase), excitability (decrease), surgency (decrease), guilt proneness (decrease), and ergic tension (decrease) but give no criterion-referenced age norms. Schaie (1966) has presented data for 15 Cattell-type factors, with scores derived from teacher ratings (on each of 42 bipolar adjectival scales) and claims significant age-related change (age 6 to age 18 on 11 of the factors); but he says there are "major inflections" in the trend lines and that' many of the changes are nonmonotonic. Sage.-Sage ( 1968) has devised a scale that reflects personality change or development in the sense that Pressey and Pressey ( 1919), Furfey ( 1930b), and Sullivan (1934) envisaged. Sage did this after Berdie (1968) retested, with the 355-item Minnesota Counseling Inventory, 259 University of Minnesota freshmen (148 males, 111 females) who had been tested as 9th graders (in 43 Minnesota high schools) and found significant mean-score change (on seven dimensions for males and on four for females). Sage selected 81 items ( 5 1 for males, 31 for females; wirh 11 items common to both sexes) that showed agerelated change. H e cross-validated scores on the rwo scales (one for males, one for females) and concluded that "self-descriptions do consistently change between the age extremes of [the] late adolescent developmental period." Fergzlson, Freedman] and Ferguson.-The present authors, who have been interested in the time span covered by Grades 7 to 12, became curious to determine whether or not they could prepare a self-concept, dwelopmental-rype scale utilizing the pair-comparisons adjectival approach. In this report they show that such an approach proved feasible, thac score change over the years of con-
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cern is gradual and systematic, that developmental-type norms can be based thereon, and that the scores have predictive value.
SELF-CONCEPT SCALE The inventory used was designed originally to assess position on a coldwarm personality dimension (see Ferguson, 1970, 1974b). For that purpose it was used in a series of studies that confirmed Asch's ( 1946) hypothesis that one's perception of another is a Gestalt-like phenomenon, i.e., a set given prior to perception influences the character of that perception. It does if the predisposing set reflects a "central" trait, i.e., one that is significantly correlated with the response traits in terms of which the observer is allowed to describe the person observed. See Mensh and Wishner ( 1947 ) ; Kelley ( 1950) ; Bruner and Tagiuri ( 1954) ; Wishner ( 1960) ; Rosenberg, Nelson, and Vivekanathan ( 1968) ; also, Huguenard, Sager, and Ferguson ( 1970) ; Rinella, Ferguson, and Sager (1970); Sager and Ferguson (1970); and Stwenson and Ferguson ( 1968). The inventory mentioned in the preceding paragraph consists of a series of paired adjectives and requires a respondent to choose in each pair the adjective he or she considers the more self-descriptive. The adjectives ( 1 8 in number) are those Asch (1946) used in his original "impression" study. They ate as follows: altruistic, generous, good-looking, good-natured, happy, honest, humane, humorous, imaginative, important, persistent, popular, reliable, serious, sociable, strong, talkative, and wise. In studies reported elsewhere subsets of the pair-comparisons items have been shown to reflect, in addition to position on a cold-warm personality dimension (Ferguson, 1970), position on a masculinity-femininity variable (Reany & Ferguson, 1974), position on a self-concept continuum related to satisfaction with work associates (Snyder & Ferguson, 1976), position on a "deviancy" scale predictive (in a concurrent sense) of adolescent (self-reported) drug use (Huntwork & Ferguson, 1977), and positions on self-concept vectors related to two (of three) primary social attitudes (Ferguson, Meckley, & Ferguson, 1976). In the present study, there is to be demonstration of the ideas ( a ) that scores on specified subsets of the pair-comparisons items reflect change in self-concept during the adolescent years and ( b ) that such scores have predictive (and clinical) value. ltem Analysis
Data for item analysis were secured during a high-school, drug-use survey conducted in Dalton (Wayne County), Ohio (see Ferguson, 1974a). With three of its adjective pairs omitted ( t o permit use of a standard preprinted IBM machine-scorable answer sheet that had place for 150 answers), the pair-comparisons form was given to almost every student in school on the day of the survey. Students responding were 100% (or nearly 100%) of the Dalton school
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population in all Grades 7 through 12. In the item-analysis procedure data for the two sexes were treated separately. Selection of diagnostic adlectwes.-For each item in the pair-comparisons inventory (an item consists of two adjectives, such as "humorous-reliable"), the authors determined ( a ) the number and ( b ) the percent of students in each grade that claimed each adjective as self-descriptive. Upon the basis of those percents, the authors eliminated as not useful for a developmental-type self-concept scale, every item that failed to yield a difference of 3110 or more between the percent of 7th graders and the percent of 12th graders claiming its included adjectives as self-descriptive. Example: If, in any item, 70% of the 7th graders and 60% of the 12th graders claimed the same adjective as self-descriptive (70% - 60% = l o ) , the adjective (and the item including the adjective) was retained. If, say, 40% of the 7th graders and 35% of the 12th graders claimed a given adjective as self-descriptive (40% - 35% = 5 ) , yielding a difference less than f10, the item was discarded. Csoss-valzdation of item selection.-Based upon data secured from a school district not far from Dalton, i.e., in Waynedale in Wayne County, the authors cross-validated the item-analysis. They did this by combining 7th and 8th graders into one group, 9th and 10th graders into a second group, and 11th and 12th graders into a third group. For each of the foregoing groups, the authors determined for each item surviving the preceding step, but for students in Waynedale, ( a ) the number and ( b ) the percent claiming each adjective in each item to be self-descriptive. For further use, the authors retained only those items that contained adjectives showing grade-wise trends. Example: For females, the item "important-honest" was retained beacuse 23% of the 7th-8th-grade group, 16% of the 9th-i0th-gade group, and 6% of the llth-12th-grade group claimed as self-descriptive the adjective "important." Complementary percentages apply, of course, to the adjective "honest." Eliminated was an item like "important-altruistic" because in the context provided by that item the adjective "important" was daimed by 52% of each of the three grade groups; thus, there was no grade-wise trend. ScorLng Procedure Because each adjective in the pair-comparisons inventory occurs in more than one item ( i n 17 items, unless it was part of one of the three items dropped to accommodate the machine-scorable answer sheet), the trend exhibited by an adjective in one item may not have been the same as that exhibited when the adjective was contained in another item. A mean percentage for each adjective (over all items in which it was included) was determined; then, the authors eliminated adjectives that, upon the basis of mean percents, showed no grade-wise trend. Remaining were two types of item: ( a ) an item containing one adjective that exhibited a grade-wise trend and one adjective that did not and ( b ) an item in which both adjectives exhibited grade-wise trends.
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When the mean percent of students claiming an adjective self-descriptive increased with rising grade level, the authors assigned it a score weight of 3. When the mean percent of students claiming an adjective self-descriptive decreased with rising grade level, the authors assigned it a score weight of 1. When an adjective showed no grade-wise trend, the authors assigned it a score weight of 2. In any given item, the two adjectives could have score weights of l a n d 2 ( o r 2 a n d l ) , 2 a n d 3 ( o r 3 a n d 2 ) , o r l a n d 3 ( o r 3 a n d l ) . Oncean adjective had been assigned a score value it retained that value in every item in which it appeared. Eliminated was every item that contained adjectives to which the same weight had been assigned, i.e., 1 and 1, 2 and 2, or 3 and 3. Forty-one items for males and 48 items for females survived all item-analysis procedures.
Score Validation To cross-validate the scales that resulted from using the adjectives retained as a result of the item-analysis procedures, the authors secured data from 1630 students enrolled in two schools in Medina County, Ohio: .751 were male; 879, female. The schools were two that had cooperated in high-school drug surveys (see Ferguson, 1974b). By appropriate computer program scores were secured; score distributions were prepared; and for all grades combined (but separately for the two sexes), raw-score distributions were transformed into normalized stanine distributions ( 4 % , 7%, 12%, 17%, 20%, 17%, 12%, 7%, 4%; mean = 5 because stanine values range from 1 to 9; SD = 1.96). Table 1 shows validation results and grade norms. The first seven columns in the body of the table provide data on the scale developed for males; the last seven columns, on the scale developed for females. The first nine rows in the body of the table give the prime validity data, i.e., data for males on the scale developed for males (Columns 1 to 7 ) and data for females on the scale developed for females (Columns 8 to 14). The last nine rows in the table show cross-sex results, i.e., data for females on the scale developed for males (Columns 1 to 7 ) and data for males on the scale developed for females (Columns 8 to 1 4 ) . Pearson rs showing degree of relation between developmental self-concept score and grade level ( 9 X 6 matrix) were found to be as follows: .18 ( N = 751, p < .01) for males on the scale developed for males, .22 ( N = 879, p < .01) for females cm the scale developed for females, . l l ( N = 879, p < .01) for females on the scale developed for males, and .05 ( N = 751) for males on the scale developed for females. Chi-square calculations for reduced matrices, i.e., on matrices with three score levels and six grade levels, produced values as follows: 24.08 (df = 10, p < .01) for males o'n the scale developed for males, 46.49 (df = 10, p < .01) for females o n the scale developed for females, 40.41 ( df = 10, p < .01) for females on the scale developed for males, and 24.43 ( df = 10, p < .01) for males on the scale developed for females. Without ques-
SELF-CONCEPT AND DRUG USE
TABLE 1 DEVELOPMENTAL SELF-CONCBPT SCORE ( % ) AND GRADELEVEL* Self-concept scale for females
Self-concept scale for males S
n~t, fnr
n
m=lpc
100 100 100 100 97 97 93 97 89 86 90 92 80 78 73 82 63 62 53 53 33 34 39 43 24 23 19 23 9 8 10 10 2 3 3 2 Data for females 100 100 100 100 95 97 94 96 91 91 83 88 80 81 69 67 68 72 54 50 48 51 29 29 28 31 14 18 I5 17 7 10
T
~ fn, M F.-malr=c
n
100 100 100 100 96 97 94 95 88 85 93 90 84 76 76 71 55 59 53 70 47 43 33 37 25 27 17 17 9 12 6 3 5 6 1 4 Data for m l e s 100 100 100 100 96 '96 96 89 84 82 89 90 69 72 77 78 51 57 60 62 44 46 37 39 28 21 24 20 9 12 12 10
- *The percentages in the body of the table are cumulative. The numbers 7 to 12 (repeated) in the third row of the columnar stub heads indicate grade level. S = stanine score on self-concept scale. D = difference between cumulative percent for 7rh grade and cumulative percent for 12th grade. Numbers of cases, by grade, for males on-scale for males, as follows: 134, 134, 162, 118, 115, and 88. For females on scale for females: 163, 151, 144, 174, 137, 110. For females o n scale for males: same as chose in second set of Ns just given. For males on scale for females: same as those in first set of Ns just given. Raw-score limits for stanine units differ berween scales and berween sexes. From Stanine 1 to Stanine 9, those for males on scale for males as follows: 59-70, 71-76, 77-81, 82-86, 87-92, 93-97, 98-101, 102-105, 106 and up. Those for females on s a l e for females: 80 and below, 81-87, 88-92, 93-97, 98-102, 103-107, 108-113, 114-117, 118 and up. For females on scale for males: 77 and below, 78-82, 83-85, 86-90, 91-95, 96-98, 99-102, 103-106, 107 and up. For males on scale for females: 80 and below, 81-86, 87-92, 93-97, 98-102, 103-107, 108-112, 113-117, 118 and up. -
tion, there is significant relation between scores and grade levels; each scale seems to work better for the sex for'which it was designed than it does for the opposite sex. At least, one would reach that conclusion upon the basis of the Pearson rs. H e might not do so upon the basis of the chi-square calculations. As described elsewhere (Ferguson, 1974) a self-report drug-use score for any one drug can be based on a respondent's answer to each of four questions: 1. Have you ever used the drug? ( a ) no, never; ( b ) used, but no longer do; ( c ) yes, still do. 2. D o you consider yourself a regular user of the drug? ( a ) no, ( b ) yes.
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3. If you use the drug, how often d o you use it? ( a ) daily, (b) several times a week, (c) once a week, ( d ) once or twice a month, ( e ) less often than once or rwice 3 month. 4. If you have used the drug, but no longer use it-how long has it been since you stopped? ( a ) one day; (b) more than a day, less than a week; ( c ) more than a week, less than a month; ( d ) more than a month, less than six months; ( e ) more than six months.
For each possible answer, with "omit" allowed as an answer, a numerical value is assigned; so, a total drug-use score can be determined. For one drug, that score can range from 4 to 19. On the basis of that score, a respondent can be classified as ( a ) a nonuser: score = 4 or 5; ( b ) a light user: score = 6, 7, or 8; or (c) a heavy user: score = any value between 9 and 19. For method of securing drug-use data, see Ferguson ( 1974). ANALYSIS T o reduce a voluminous set of data to summary form suitable for presentation in m e table, the authors proceeded through the following steps. (1) They divided scores, for the sexes separately, on the developmental self-concept scales into three categories: ( a ) bottom three stanines (belownorm scores) representing lowest 23% of score distribution, ( b ) middle three stanines (at-norm scores) representing middle 54% of score disrribucion, and (c) top three stanines (above-norm scores) representing top 23% of score distribution. ( 2 ) For each of six drugs, for the sexes separately, and for each of four grade levels (9, 10, 11, 12) they divided respondents (1067 males, 1323 females) into ( a ) users and ( b ) nonusers. A user was defined as a respondent who secured a score of 6 or higher on the scale described by Ferguson ( 1974). A nonuser was defined as a respondent who secured a drug-use score of 4 or 5. ( 3 ) For each of three self-concept score levels (below norm, at norm, above norm), with data for the sexes treated separately, the authors computed mean percent of respondents who used each drug: beer and wine, cigarettes, hard liquor, marijuana, speed, and LSD. For each of four grade levels a percent was determined; then, a mean across all grade levels was calculated. Table 2 shows the results. Chi squares, based upon the underlying bivariate frequency distributions for all grades combined, with a value of 4.60 (df = 2 ) required for significance at the .05 (one-tail) level, are presented in Columns 4 and 8. They show the postulated relationship to hold for each of five drugs for males and for each of three drugs for females. DISCUSSION The authors suspect but cannot prove (with data presented) that a reason for the low chi-square values for three so-called "youth or "protest" drugs lies in the relatively low use frequencies reported. If the low use frequencies cause surprise, one should note that they are rtot out of line with use frequencies that
SELF-CONCEPT AND DRUG USE TABLE 2 PERCENT R E S P O ~ B N TUSING S DRUGBY SCORE ON DEVELOPMENTAL SELF-CONCEPT SCALE* Drug Below norm
Males At norm
X(l Above norm
Below norm
Females At Above norm norm
X"
68 63 a 47 16.68 48 44 36 7.80 66 59 46 17.73 38 38 29 8.26 41 33 25 7.45 24 24 15 9.80 15 11 7 6.54 7 9 6 0.12 Speed 9 6 4 3.64 3 4 3 .03 LSD 8 4 1 8.56 4 2 1 4.43 *Total number of male respondents = 1067; total number of female respondents = 1323. Males with self-concept below norm level = 273; males with self-concept at norm level = 594; males with self-concept above norm level = 200. Females with self-concept below norm level = 285; females with self-concept at norm level = 740; females with self-concept above norm level = 298. Each chi square based upon underlying bivariate frequency distribution ( not upon % s ) .
Beer & wine Cigarettes Hard liquor Marijuana
other investigators have reported (see Ferguson, 1774). Despite the fcxegoing, it is a fact that respondents for the present study were high-school sfudents in semirural regions in Southeastern Ohio (Gallia, Jackson, and Meigs counties). Frequencies for such populations tend to be less than those for respondents in metropolitan-area high-schools. Results should be compared with those secured by Huntwork and ~ e r g u s d n ( 1977), who related self-report drug use to a measure of deviancy from selfconcept score norms when deviancy is defined as the number of non-norm adjectives claimed as self-descriptive. Because the present authors utilized for this part of their research the same population as did Huntwork and Ferguson, the parallel results should cause no surprise; however, the two methods of determining "deviance" are conceptually (as well as operationally) independent. Undoubtedly the scores ace statistically correlated. Each scoring system was devised with its own rationale, and each represents a useful approach to the problem of predicting (for drug use on a concurrent basis) at-risk segments of an adolescent high-school population. As Huntwork and Ferguson (1777) suggested, high-school counselors might administer the pair-comparisons inventory to a schoolwide population; then, determine from the data which become available the extent to which scores on a self-concept scale--(a) of the developmental type utilized for the present report or (b) of the deviancy rype Huntwork and Ferguson describedindicate srudents in need of or who could profit from counselor attention. REFERENCES ASCH,S. E. Formin impressions of personality. Journal o f Abnormal and Social Psychology, 194( 41, 258-230. Personali changes from high school entrance to college matriculation. J o u ~ n a lof ~ o u n r e l nPsychology, ~ 1968, 15, 376-380.
BERDIE,R. F.
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BLACK,M. S. The development of personality factors in children and adolescents. Educational and Psychologicrrl Measarement, 1965, 25, 767-785. BRUNER,J. S., & TAGIURI,R. The perception of people. In G. Lindzey (Ed.), H m d book of social psychology. Vol. 2 . Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1954. Pp. 634-654. CHAMBERS,0. R. A method of measuring the emotional maturity of children. Pedagogical Seminary, 1925, 32, 637-647. FERGUSON,L. W. An index of self-allocation on a cold-warm personality dimension. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 1970, 30, 787-793. FERGUSON,L. W. Public-service drug-use scales: rationale, derivation. and norms. Psychological Reports, 1974, 34, 871-876. ( a ) FERGUSON,L. W. Spearman-Brown reliability coefficients for Ferguson's 80-item paircomprisons person-perception scale. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 1974, 38, 1161-1162. (b) FERGUSON,L. W., MECKLEY,S., & FERGUSON,E. P. Self-concept and attitude. Psychological Reports, 1976, 39, 771-779. FURFEY,P. H. Some preliminary results on the nature of developmental age. School and Sociery, 1926, 23, 183-184. FURFEY,P. H. The measurement of developmental age. Catholic University o f America Educational Research Bulletins, 1927, 2 , No. 10. Pp. 40. FURFEY,P. H. Developmental age. American Journal o f Psychiatry, 1928, 85, 149-157. FURFEY,P. H. The growing boy. Cme stirdies o f developmental age. New York: Macmillan, 1930. ( a ) FURPEY,P. H. A scale for measuring developmental age. Mental Hygiene, 1930, 14, 129-136. ( b ) FURFEY,P. H . A revised scale for measuring developmental age in boys. Child Development, 1931, 2, 102-114. H U G U E ~ A RT., D , SAGER,E. B., & FERGUSON,L. W . Interview time, interview set, and ~ n t e r v ~ e outcome. w Perceptual and Motor Skills, 1970, 31, 831-836. HUNTWORK,D., & FERGUSON,L. W. D m g use and deviation from self-concept norms. Journd o f Abnormal Child Psychology, 1977, 5, 53-60. KELLEY,H. H. The warm-cold variable in first impressions of persons. Jot~rnalo f Personality, 1950, 18, 431-439. MENSH, I. N., & WISHNER, J. ASch on "Forming impressions of personality:" further evidence. Journal of Personality, 1947, 16, 188-191. OFFER, D., ~ ~ R C U D., S , & OFFER, J. L. A longitudinal study of norms1 adolescent boys. American Journal o f Psychiatry, 1970, 126, 917-924. PRESSEY,S. L. A group scale for investi ting the emotions. Journal o f Abnormal and Social Psychology, 1921, 16, 5 5 - 8 , PRESSEY,S. L. Changes from 1923 to 1943 in the attitudes of public school and university students. Journal o f Psychology, 1946, 21, 17 3-188. PRESSEY,S. L., & CHAMBERS,0. R. First revision of a group scale designed for investigating the emotions, with tentative norms. Journal o f Applied Psychology, 1920, 4, 97-102. PRESSEY,S. L., & JONES, A. W. 1923-1953 and 20-60 age changes in moral codes, anxieties, and interests, as shown by the " X - 0 tests." Journal of Psychology, 1955, 39, 485-502. PRESSEY,S. L., & PRESSEY,L. W. "Cross out" tests, with suggestions as to a group of the emotions. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1919, 3, 138-150. PRESSEY,S. L., & PRESSBY,L. W. Development of the interest-attitude tests. Journal of Applied Psychology. 1933, 17, 1-16. REANY,M., & FERGUSON,L. W. Forced-choice adjectival masculinity-femininity scale. Psychological Reports, 1974, 34, 595-602. RINELLA,S.. FERGUSON,L. W., & SAGER,E. B. Personality impression formation as a function of visual cues and set. Perceptud and Motor Skills, 1970, 31, 427-430. ROSENBERG, S., NELSON,C., & VIVEKANATHAN,P. S. A multi-dimensional approach to
DEVELOPMENTAL SELF-CONCEPT AND (SELF-REPORTED) DRUG USE LEONARD W. FERGUSON, MARILYN FREEDMAN, AND
EDITH P. FERGUSON Ohio Universiiy
Sumnmy.-Authors describe two adjecrival, pair-comparisons, self-concept scales (one for males, one for females). Both reflect development in selfconcept during adolescence. Both cross-validate. Both predict concurrent, selfreported drug-use behavior: beer and wine, cigarettes, hard liquor, marijuana (males only), and LSD (males only).
Pressey and Pressey ( 1919) may not have been the first, but they were early among psychologists who attempted to construct a t&t (wich developmental-type norms) to measure, in a "systematic manner, individual differences in interests and emotional make-up." The test the Presseys utilized was called the X - 0 (or Cross Out) test; it consisted of four parts; and each part contained lists of words. Each part contained 25 lists, and each list contained five or six words. Instructions told a respondent to cross out, in Part I, any word with an unpleasant meaning; in Part 11, any word after the first associated (in any way) with that first word; in Part 111, any "worry;" and, in part IV, anything considered wrong (in a moral sense). After trying several scoring methods, Pressey and Pressey (1933) dassified each word as "mature" or "immature." A word was "mature," i.e., implied "maturity," if the proportion of respndents crossing it out decreased with rising grade level (from Grade 5 to Grade 1 2 ) . It was "immature," i.e., implied "immaturity," if the proportion of respondents crossing it out increased wich grade level. A respondent who crossed out more "mature" words than "immature" words earned a negative score. A respondent who crossed out more "immature" words than "mature" words earned a positive score. For both sexes mean score showed a marked, inverse correlation with grade level. From the 5th grade to the 12th mean scores for boys were 161, 132, 100, 65, 51, 39, 27, and 16; for girls, 168,121,96,79,65,54,40, and 25 (Pressey & Pressey, 1933). Subsequent to Pressey and Pressey's early work, Pressey and Chambers ( 1920), Pressey ( 192 1) , Chambers ( 1925 ) , and others expanded the data base to such an extent that Stone and Barker ( 1937, 1939) attempted to use the X - 0 (and other) interest-and-attitude items-many from Sullivan (1934)-to develop a scale capable of distinguishing postmenarcheal girls from premenarcheal girls (age held constant). Stone and Barker found a few discriminating items (more than chance would allow) but in large part the results were negative. Those negative results caused Stone and Barker to abandon their planned at-
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tempt to develop a "psychometric" test that would yield scores after an important life event (first mensis) different from scores before that life event (CA held constant). Implications From the foregoing studies, two implications emerge: ( a ) a developmental trend may exhibit itself only over a period of years and, perhaps, ( b ) it cannot be discovered by comparing responses of those who have just passed a significant life event with those, of the same age, who have not reached that event. These (possible) implications are mentioned because they seem to have been overlooked in recent years, overshadowed by the fact that the X - 0 test no longer (for many reasons) enjoys widespread use. See Pressey (1946) and Pressey and Jones (1955). Additional Studies on Age-related Variables Although not inspired by X - 0 test results, Strong (1931, 1933, 1943, pp. 247-285), in his measurment of interest maturity, and Terman and Miles ( 1936), in their measurement of masculinity-femininity, secured test scores that correlate with age. Strong.-To develop his scale of interest maturity, Strong compared the interests of 55-yr.-old men with those of 15-yr.-old b q s ; later, those of 25-yr.old men with those of 15-yr.-old boys. The resulcs were scales that permit a respondent to determine how nearly "mature" his interests are, i.e., how dose to those of 55-yr.-old, or 25-yr.-old, men, or how "immature" (how close to those of 15-yr.-old boys). T e r m n and Miles.-Terman and Miles (1936, pp. 122-156) did not use criterion groups selected primarily on the basis of age but on the basis of sex. Despite chat fact, when scaling work was complete, they found that MF scores did, indeed, change with age. From the 8th grade to the 11th grade for males and from the 8th grade to the 14th grade (college sophomore) for females, mean score increased, i.e., implied a more-masculine orientation; from the higher ages indicated, mean score declined, i.e., implied a more-feminine orientation. Fwfey, Sul1iuan.-In the late 1920s and early 1930s, Furfey (1926, 1927, 1928, 1930a, 1930b, 1931) devised for boys, and Sullivan (1934) for girls, scales to measure developmental age, i.e., ". . . maturity of personality which shows itself in a changing interest in amusements, a changing reaction toward other persons, and in general a changing type of personality." Each scale consisted of six sections (in pair-comparisons format) asking a respondent to choose between two ( a ) things to do, ( b ) things to be when you grow up, ( c ) books to read, ( d ) things to have, ( 4 ) things to see, and ( f ) things to think about. Each section contained from 25 to 40 items, and each item in each section exhibited change (as a self-descriptor) over the span from 8 yr. of age to 18. Mean scores for males (from age 8 to 18 yr.) were 73, 81, 92,98, 108, 123,
SELF-CONCEPT AND DRUG USE
,
533
138, 152, 164, 163, and 163. Mean scores for females were 72, 84,94, 112, 135, 149, 159,168,168, and 168. In both series increase continued until age 16. Sullivan did n o cross-validation but Furfey did. As indicated earlier, Stone and Barker ( 1937, 1939) used some of Sullivan's (1934) items, but that fact did not help them in devising a scale to distinguish between same-age postmenarcheal and premenarcheal girls. Others who have attempted to show thac personality changes systematically in the teenage span of years are Black (1965), Schaie (1966), Sealy and Cattell (1966), Berdie ( 1968), Sage ( 1968 ) , and Offer, Marcus, and Offer ( 1970). 0ffer, Marcus, a d Offer.-From a clinical standpoint, the most significant of the studies cited is that by Offer, Marcus, and Offer (1970). They report results of a longitudinal srudy (over a 7-yr. span) of "normal adolescent boys" and discuss, primarily on a case basis, changes in independence, heterosexual activity, social radicalism, identity formation and identiry consolidation, selfsatisfaction, parent-son relations, drug experiences, and social activities; but they provide no over-all quantitative summary of "developmental" change. Sealy and Cattell.-Sealy and Cattell (1966) report significant linear agerelated trends on each of six (out of 11) factor-derived personaliry scores over the age span 11 to 23-affectothymia ( increase), self-sufficiency ( increase), excitability (decrease), surgency (decrease), guilt proneness (decrease), and ergic tension (decrease) but give no criterion-referenced age norms. Schaie (1966) has presented data for 15 Cattell-type factors, with scores derived from teacher ratings (on each of 42 bipolar adjectival scales) and claims significant age-related change (age 6 to age 18 on 11 of the factors); but he says there are "major inflections" in the trend lines and that' many of the changes are nonmonotonic. Sage.-Sage ( 1968) has devised a scale that reflects personality change or development in the sense that Pressey and Pressey ( 1919), Furfey ( 1930b), and Sullivan (1934) envisaged. Sage did this after Berdie (1968) retested, with the 355-item Minnesota Counseling Inventory, 259 University of Minnesota freshmen (148 males, 111 females) who had been tested as 9th graders (in 43 Minnesota high schools) and found significant mean-score change (on seven dimensions for males and on four for females). Sage selected 81 items ( 5 1 for males, 31 for females; wirh 11 items common to both sexes) that showed agerelated change. H e cross-validated scores on the rwo scales (one for males, one for females) and concluded that "self-descriptions do consistently change between the age extremes of [the] late adolescent developmental period." Fergzlson, Freedman] and Ferguson.-The present authors, who have been interested in the time span covered by Grades 7 to 12, became curious to determine whether or not they could prepare a self-concept, dwelopmental-rype scale utilizing the pair-comparisons adjectival approach. In this report they show that such an approach proved feasible, thac score change over the years of con-
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cern is gradual and systematic, that developmental-type norms can be based thereon, and that the scores have predictive value.
SELF-CONCEPT SCALE The inventory used was designed originally to assess position on a coldwarm personality dimension (see Ferguson, 1970, 1974b). For that purpose it was used in a series of studies that confirmed Asch's ( 1946) hypothesis that one's perception of another is a Gestalt-like phenomenon, i.e., a set given prior to perception influences the character of that perception. It does if the predisposing set reflects a "central" trait, i.e., one that is significantly correlated with the response traits in terms of which the observer is allowed to describe the person observed. See Mensh and Wishner ( 1947 ) ; Kelley ( 1950) ; Bruner and Tagiuri ( 1954) ; Wishner ( 1960) ; Rosenberg, Nelson, and Vivekanathan ( 1968) ; also, Huguenard, Sager, and Ferguson ( 1970) ; Rinella, Ferguson, and Sager (1970); Sager and Ferguson (1970); and Stwenson and Ferguson ( 1968). The inventory mentioned in the preceding paragraph consists of a series of paired adjectives and requires a respondent to choose in each pair the adjective he or she considers the more self-descriptive. The adjectives ( 1 8 in number) are those Asch (1946) used in his original "impression" study. They ate as follows: altruistic, generous, good-looking, good-natured, happy, honest, humane, humorous, imaginative, important, persistent, popular, reliable, serious, sociable, strong, talkative, and wise. In studies reported elsewhere subsets of the pair-comparisons items have been shown to reflect, in addition to position on a cold-warm personality dimension (Ferguson, 1970), position on a masculinity-femininity variable (Reany & Ferguson, 1974), position on a self-concept continuum related to satisfaction with work associates (Snyder & Ferguson, 1976), position on a "deviancy" scale predictive (in a concurrent sense) of adolescent (self-reported) drug use (Huntwork & Ferguson, 1977), and positions on self-concept vectors related to two (of three) primary social attitudes (Ferguson, Meckley, & Ferguson, 1976). In the present study, there is to be demonstration of the ideas ( a ) that scores on specified subsets of the pair-comparisons items reflect change in self-concept during the adolescent years and ( b ) that such scores have predictive (and clinical) value. ltem Analysis
Data for item analysis were secured during a high-school, drug-use survey conducted in Dalton (Wayne County), Ohio (see Ferguson, 1974a). With three of its adjective pairs omitted ( t o permit use of a standard preprinted IBM machine-scorable answer sheet that had place for 150 answers), the pair-comparisons form was given to almost every student in school on the day of the survey. Students responding were 100% (or nearly 100%) of the Dalton school
SELF-CONCEPT AND DRUG USE
535
population in all Grades 7 through 12. In the item-analysis procedure data for the two sexes were treated separately. Selection of diagnostic adlectwes.-For each item in the pair-comparisons inventory (an item consists of two adjectives, such as "humorous-reliable"), the authors determined ( a ) the number and ( b ) the percent of students in each grade that claimed each adjective as self-descriptive. Upon the basis of those percents, the authors eliminated as not useful for a developmental-type self-concept scale, every item that failed to yield a difference of 3110 or more between the percent of 7th graders and the percent of 12th graders claiming its included adjectives as self-descriptive. Example: If, in any item, 70% of the 7th graders and 60% of the 12th graders claimed the same adjective as self-descriptive (70% - 60% = l o ) , the adjective (and the item including the adjective) was retained. If, say, 40% of the 7th graders and 35% of the 12th graders claimed a given adjective as self-descriptive (40% - 35% = 5 ) , yielding a difference less than f10, the item was discarded. Csoss-valzdation of item selection.-Based upon data secured from a school district not far from Dalton, i.e., in Waynedale in Wayne County, the authors cross-validated the item-analysis. They did this by combining 7th and 8th graders into one group, 9th and 10th graders into a second group, and 11th and 12th graders into a third group. For each of the foregoing groups, the authors determined for each item surviving the preceding step, but for students in Waynedale, ( a ) the number and ( b ) the percent claiming each adjective in each item to be self-descriptive. For further use, the authors retained only those items that contained adjectives showing grade-wise trends. Example: For females, the item "important-honest" was retained beacuse 23% of the 7th-8th-grade group, 16% of the 9th-i0th-gade group, and 6% of the llth-12th-grade group claimed as self-descriptive the adjective "important." Complementary percentages apply, of course, to the adjective "honest." Eliminated was an item like "important-altruistic" because in the context provided by that item the adjective "important" was daimed by 52% of each of the three grade groups; thus, there was no grade-wise trend. ScorLng Procedure Because each adjective in the pair-comparisons inventory occurs in more than one item ( i n 17 items, unless it was part of one of the three items dropped to accommodate the machine-scorable answer sheet), the trend exhibited by an adjective in one item may not have been the same as that exhibited when the adjective was contained in another item. A mean percentage for each adjective (over all items in which it was included) was determined; then, the authors eliminated adjectives that, upon the basis of mean percents, showed no grade-wise trend. Remaining were two types of item: ( a ) an item containing one adjective that exhibited a grade-wise trend and one adjective that did not and ( b ) an item in which both adjectives exhibited grade-wise trends.
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When the mean percent of students claiming an adjective self-descriptive increased with rising grade level, the authors assigned it a score weight of 3. When the mean percent of students claiming an adjective self-descriptive decreased with rising grade level, the authors assigned it a score weight of 1. When an adjective showed no grade-wise trend, the authors assigned it a score weight of 2. In any given item, the two adjectives could have score weights of l a n d 2 ( o r 2 a n d l ) , 2 a n d 3 ( o r 3 a n d 2 ) , o r l a n d 3 ( o r 3 a n d l ) . Oncean adjective had been assigned a score value it retained that value in every item in which it appeared. Eliminated was every item that contained adjectives to which the same weight had been assigned, i.e., 1 and 1, 2 and 2, or 3 and 3. Forty-one items for males and 48 items for females survived all item-analysis procedures.
Score Validation To cross-validate the scales that resulted from using the adjectives retained as a result of the item-analysis procedures, the authors secured data from 1630 students enrolled in two schools in Medina County, Ohio: .751 were male; 879, female. The schools were two that had cooperated in high-school drug surveys (see Ferguson, 1974b). By appropriate computer program scores were secured; score distributions were prepared; and for all grades combined (but separately for the two sexes), raw-score distributions were transformed into normalized stanine distributions ( 4 % , 7%, 12%, 17%, 20%, 17%, 12%, 7%, 4%; mean = 5 because stanine values range from 1 to 9; SD = 1.96). Table 1 shows validation results and grade norms. The first seven columns in the body of the table provide data on the scale developed for males; the last seven columns, on the scale developed for females. The first nine rows in the body of the table give the prime validity data, i.e., data for males on the scale developed for males (Columns 1 to 7 ) and data for females on the scale developed for females (Columns 8 to 14). The last nine rows in the table show cross-sex results, i.e., data for females on the scale developed for males (Columns 1 to 7 ) and data for males on the scale developed for females (Columns 8 to 1 4 ) . Pearson rs showing degree of relation between developmental self-concept score and grade level ( 9 X 6 matrix) were found to be as follows: .18 ( N = 751, p < .01) for males on the scale developed for males, .22 ( N = 879, p < .01) for females cm the scale developed for females, . l l ( N = 879, p < .01) for females on the scale developed for males, and .05 ( N = 751) for males on the scale developed for females. Chi-square calculations for reduced matrices, i.e., on matrices with three score levels and six grade levels, produced values as follows: 24.08 (df = 10, p < .01) for males o'n the scale developed for males, 46.49 (df = 10, p < .01) for females o n the scale developed for females, 40.41 ( df = 10, p < .01) for females on the scale developed for males, and 24.43 ( df = 10, p < .01) for males on the scale developed for females. Without ques-
SELF-CONCEPT AND DRUG USE
TABLE 1 DEVELOPMENTAL SELF-CONCBPT SCORE ( % ) AND GRADELEVEL* Self-concept scale for females
Self-concept scale for males S
n~t, fnr
n
m=lpc
100 100 100 100 97 97 93 97 89 86 90 92 80 78 73 82 63 62 53 53 33 34 39 43 24 23 19 23 9 8 10 10 2 3 3 2 Data for females 100 100 100 100 95 97 94 96 91 91 83 88 80 81 69 67 68 72 54 50 48 51 29 29 28 31 14 18 I5 17 7 10
T
~ fn, M F.-malr=c
n
100 100 100 100 96 97 94 95 88 85 93 90 84 76 76 71 55 59 53 70 47 43 33 37 25 27 17 17 9 12 6 3 5 6 1 4 Data for m l e s 100 100 100 100 96 '96 96 89 84 82 89 90 69 72 77 78 51 57 60 62 44 46 37 39 28 21 24 20 9 12 12 10
- *The percentages in the body of the table are cumulative. The numbers 7 to 12 (repeated) in the third row of the columnar stub heads indicate grade level. S = stanine score on self-concept scale. D = difference between cumulative percent for 7rh grade and cumulative percent for 12th grade. Numbers of cases, by grade, for males on-scale for males, as follows: 134, 134, 162, 118, 115, and 88. For females on scale for females: 163, 151, 144, 174, 137, 110. For females o n scale for males: same as chose in second set of Ns just given. For males on scale for females: same as those in first set of Ns just given. Raw-score limits for stanine units differ berween scales and berween sexes. From Stanine 1 to Stanine 9, those for males on scale for males as follows: 59-70, 71-76, 77-81, 82-86, 87-92, 93-97, 98-101, 102-105, 106 and up. Those for females on s a l e for females: 80 and below, 81-87, 88-92, 93-97, 98-102, 103-107, 108-113, 114-117, 118 and up. For females on scale for males: 77 and below, 78-82, 83-85, 86-90, 91-95, 96-98, 99-102, 103-106, 107 and up. For males on scale for females: 80 and below, 81-86, 87-92, 93-97, 98-102, 103-107, 108-112, 113-117, 118 and up. -
tion, there is significant relation between scores and grade levels; each scale seems to work better for the sex for'which it was designed than it does for the opposite sex. At least, one would reach that conclusion upon the basis of the Pearson rs. H e might not do so upon the basis of the chi-square calculations. As described elsewhere (Ferguson, 1974) a self-report drug-use score for any one drug can be based on a respondent's answer to each of four questions: 1. Have you ever used the drug? ( a ) no, never; ( b ) used, but no longer do; ( c ) yes, still do. 2. D o you consider yourself a regular user of the drug? ( a ) no, ( b ) yes.
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3. If you use the drug, how often d o you use it? ( a ) daily, (b) several times a week, (c) once a week, ( d ) once or twice a month, ( e ) less often than once or rwice 3 month. 4. If you have used the drug, but no longer use it-how long has it been since you stopped? ( a ) one day; (b) more than a day, less than a week; ( c ) more than a week, less than a month; ( d ) more than a month, less than six months; ( e ) more than six months.
For each possible answer, with "omit" allowed as an answer, a numerical value is assigned; so, a total drug-use score can be determined. For one drug, that score can range from 4 to 19. On the basis of that score, a respondent can be classified as ( a ) a nonuser: score = 4 or 5; ( b ) a light user: score = 6, 7, or 8; or (c) a heavy user: score = any value between 9 and 19. For method of securing drug-use data, see Ferguson ( 1974). ANALYSIS T o reduce a voluminous set of data to summary form suitable for presentation in m e table, the authors proceeded through the following steps. (1) They divided scores, for the sexes separately, on the developmental self-concept scales into three categories: ( a ) bottom three stanines (belownorm scores) representing lowest 23% of score distribution, ( b ) middle three stanines (at-norm scores) representing middle 54% of score disrribucion, and (c) top three stanines (above-norm scores) representing top 23% of score distribution. ( 2 ) For each of six drugs, for the sexes separately, and for each of four grade levels (9, 10, 11, 12) they divided respondents (1067 males, 1323 females) into ( a ) users and ( b ) nonusers. A user was defined as a respondent who secured a score of 6 or higher on the scale described by Ferguson ( 1974). A nonuser was defined as a respondent who secured a drug-use score of 4 or 5. ( 3 ) For each of three self-concept score levels (below norm, at norm, above norm), with data for the sexes treated separately, the authors computed mean percent of respondents who used each drug: beer and wine, cigarettes, hard liquor, marijuana, speed, and LSD. For each of four grade levels a percent was determined; then, a mean across all grade levels was calculated. Table 2 shows the results. Chi squares, based upon the underlying bivariate frequency distributions for all grades combined, with a value of 4.60 (df = 2 ) required for significance at the .05 (one-tail) level, are presented in Columns 4 and 8. They show the postulated relationship to hold for each of five drugs for males and for each of three drugs for females. DISCUSSION The authors suspect but cannot prove (with data presented) that a reason for the low chi-square values for three so-called "youth or "protest" drugs lies in the relatively low use frequencies reported. If the low use frequencies cause surprise, one should note that they are rtot out of line with use frequencies that
SELF-CONCEPT AND DRUG USE TABLE 2 PERCENT R E S P O ~ B N TUSING S DRUGBY SCORE ON DEVELOPMENTAL SELF-CONCEPT SCALE* Drug Below norm
Males At norm
X(l Above norm
Below norm
Females At Above norm norm
X"
68 63 a 47 16.68 48 44 36 7.80 66 59 46 17.73 38 38 29 8.26 41 33 25 7.45 24 24 15 9.80 15 11 7 6.54 7 9 6 0.12 Speed 9 6 4 3.64 3 4 3 .03 LSD 8 4 1 8.56 4 2 1 4.43 *Total number of male respondents = 1067; total number of female respondents = 1323. Males with self-concept below norm level = 273; males with self-concept at norm level = 594; males with self-concept above norm level = 200. Females with self-concept below norm level = 285; females with self-concept at norm level = 740; females with self-concept above norm level = 298. Each chi square based upon underlying bivariate frequency distribution ( not upon % s ) .
Beer & wine Cigarettes Hard liquor Marijuana
other investigators have reported (see Ferguson, 1774). Despite the fcxegoing, it is a fact that respondents for the present study were high-school sfudents in semirural regions in Southeastern Ohio (Gallia, Jackson, and Meigs counties). Frequencies for such populations tend to be less than those for respondents in metropolitan-area high-schools. Results should be compared with those secured by Huntwork and ~ e r g u s d n ( 1977), who related self-report drug use to a measure of deviancy from selfconcept score norms when deviancy is defined as the number of non-norm adjectives claimed as self-descriptive. Because the present authors utilized for this part of their research the same population as did Huntwork and Ferguson, the parallel results should cause no surprise; however, the two methods of determining "deviance" are conceptually (as well as operationally) independent. Undoubtedly the scores ace statistically correlated. Each scoring system was devised with its own rationale, and each represents a useful approach to the problem of predicting (for drug use on a concurrent basis) at-risk segments of an adolescent high-school population. As Huntwork and Ferguson (1777) suggested, high-school counselors might administer the pair-comparisons inventory to a schoolwide population; then, determine from the data which become available the extent to which scores on a self-concept scale--(a) of the developmental type utilized for the present report or (b) of the deviancy rype Huntwork and Ferguson describedindicate srudents in need of or who could profit from counselor attention. REFERENCES ASCH,S. E. Formin impressions of personality. Journal o f Abnormal and Social Psychology, 194( 41, 258-230. Personali changes from high school entrance to college matriculation. J o u ~ n a lof ~ o u n r e l nPsychology, ~ 1968, 15, 376-380.
BERDIE,R. F.
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BLACK,M. S. The development of personality factors in children and adolescents. Educational and Psychologicrrl Measarement, 1965, 25, 767-785. BRUNER,J. S., & TAGIURI,R. The perception of people. In G. Lindzey (Ed.), H m d book of social psychology. Vol. 2 . Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1954. Pp. 634-654. CHAMBERS,0. R. A method of measuring the emotional maturity of children. Pedagogical Seminary, 1925, 32, 637-647. FERGUSON,L. W. An index of self-allocation on a cold-warm personality dimension. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 1970, 30, 787-793. FERGUSON,L. W. Public-service drug-use scales: rationale, derivation. and norms. Psychological Reports, 1974, 34, 871-876. ( a ) FERGUSON,L. W. Spearman-Brown reliability coefficients for Ferguson's 80-item paircomprisons person-perception scale. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 1974, 38, 1161-1162. (b) FERGUSON,L. W., MECKLEY,S., & FERGUSON,E. P. Self-concept and attitude. Psychological Reports, 1976, 39, 771-779. FURFEY,P. H. Some preliminary results on the nature of developmental age. School and Sociery, 1926, 23, 183-184. FURFEY,P. H. The measurement of developmental age. Catholic University o f America Educational Research Bulletins, 1927, 2 , No. 10. Pp. 40. FURFEY,P. H. Developmental age. American Journal o f Psychiatry, 1928, 85, 149-157. FURFEY,P. H. The growing boy. Cme stirdies o f developmental age. New York: Macmillan, 1930. ( a ) FURPEY,P. H. A scale for measuring developmental age. Mental Hygiene, 1930, 14, 129-136. ( b ) FURFEY,P. H . A revised scale for measuring developmental age in boys. Child Development, 1931, 2, 102-114. H U G U E ~ A RT., D , SAGER,E. B., & FERGUSON,L. W . Interview time, interview set, and ~ n t e r v ~ e outcome. w Perceptual and Motor Skills, 1970, 31, 831-836. HUNTWORK,D., & FERGUSON,L. W. D m g use and deviation from self-concept norms. Journd o f Abnormal Child Psychology, 1977, 5, 53-60. KELLEY,H. H. The warm-cold variable in first impressions of persons. Jot~rnalo f Personality, 1950, 18, 431-439. MENSH, I. N., & WISHNER, J. ASch on "Forming impressions of personality:" further evidence. Journal of Personality, 1947, 16, 188-191. OFFER, D., ~ ~ R C U D., S , & OFFER, J. L. A longitudinal study of norms1 adolescent boys. American Journal o f Psychiatry, 1970, 126, 917-924. PRESSEY,S. L. A group scale for investi ting the emotions. Journal o f Abnormal and Social Psychology, 1921, 16, 5 5 - 8 , PRESSEY,S. L. Changes from 1923 to 1943 in the attitudes of public school and university students. Journal o f Psychology, 1946, 21, 17 3-188. PRESSEY,S. L., & CHAMBERS,0. R. First revision of a group scale designed for investigating the emotions, with tentative norms. Journal o f Applied Psychology, 1920, 4, 97-102. PRESSEY,S. L., & JONES, A. W. 1923-1953 and 20-60 age changes in moral codes, anxieties, and interests, as shown by the " X - 0 tests." Journal of Psychology, 1955, 39, 485-502. PRESSEY,S. L., & PRESSEY,L. W. "Cross out" tests, with suggestions as to a group of the emotions. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1919, 3, 138-150. PRESSEY,S. L., & PRESSBY,L. W. Development of the interest-attitude tests. Journal of Applied Psychology. 1933, 17, 1-16. REANY,M., & FERGUSON,L. W. Forced-choice adjectival masculinity-femininity scale. Psychological Reports, 1974, 34, 595-602. RINELLA,S.. FERGUSON,L. W., & SAGER,E. B. Personality impression formation as a function of visual cues and set. Perceptud and Motor Skills, 1970, 31, 427-430. ROSENBERG, S., NELSON,C., & VIVEKANATHAN,P. S. A multi-dimensional approach to
