For individual use only. Duplication or distribution prohibited by law.
Applied Research Brief: Weight Control; Emotional Health
Depressive Symptoms Mediate the Association Between Fear of Crime and Higher Body Mass Index Gergana Kodjebacheva, PhD; Maria Koleilat, DrPH, MPH; Daniel J. Kruger, PhD Abstract Purpose. To investigate pathways in the association between fear of crime and obesity. Design. A cross-sectional survey was administered among residents aged 18 years and older across all Census tracts. Setting. Genesee County, Michigan. Subjects. A total of 3192 residents. Measures. Body mass index (BMI) was calculated by using the respondents’ reported height and weight. Composite fear-of-crime and depressive symptoms scores were calculated by using several survey items. Analysis. Path analysis examined the effects of fear of crime on BMI. Results. Fear of crime was associated with higher BMI. Depressive symptoms mediated the relationship between fear of crime and BMI (p , .001). Moderate exercise mediated the association between depressive symptoms and BMI (p , .001). Conclusion. Fear of crime was associated with depressive symptoms, which in turn were associated with reduced exercise and subsequently higher BMI. (Am J Health Promot 2015; 30[2]:130–132.) Key Words: Fear of Crime, Depressive Symptoms, Exercise, Body Mass Index, Prevention Research. Manuscript format: brief; Research purpose: modeling/ relationship testing; Study design: nonexperimental; Outcome measure: biometric; Setting: local community; Health focus: weight control, fitness/physical activity; Strategy: skill building/behavior change; Target population age: adults, seniors; Target population circumstances: education/income level and race/ethnicity
Gergana Kodjebacheva, PhD, is with the Department of Public Health and Health Sciences, School of Health Professions and Studies, University of Michigan–Flint, and the International Institute, University of Michigan–Ann Arbor. Maria Koleilat, DrPH, MPH, is with the California State University–Fullerton. Daniel J. Kruger, PhD, is with the School of Public Health, University of Michigan–Ann Arbor. Send reprint requests to Gergana Kodjebacheva, PhD, Department of Public Health and Health Sciences, University of Michigan–Flint, 303 E Kearsley St, Flint, MI 48502; [email protected]. This manuscript was submitted January 3, 2014; revisions were requested March 17 and April 24, 2014; the manuscript was accepted for publication April 28, 2014. Copyright Ó 2015 by American Journal of Health Promotion, Inc. 0890-1171/15/$5.00 þ 0 DOI: 10.4278/ajhp.140103-ARB-6
130
American Journal of Health Promotion
PURPOSE Fear of crime is defined as the ‘‘state of alarm engendered by the belief that one is in danger of criminal victimization.’’1 It can be caused by neighborhood conditions such as poverty, vandalism, and public drinking.2,3 One consequence of fear of crime may be increased body mass index (BMI). Several hypotheses explain the association between fear of crime and obesity. Because people who fear crime avoid parks and walking trails,2 one hypothesis is that fear of crime leads to reduced exercise, thus contributing to obesity. Another hypothesis is that fear of crime leads to depressive symptoms, which increase cortisol levels and promote the storage of fat in the body.3 Yet another hypothesis is that depressive symptoms lead to obesity through discouraging exercise.3 Studies offer mixed support for these hypotheses. Fear of crime was not associated with obesity in some research.4 In another study, which overrepresented females and non-Hispanic whites, fear of crime was associated with depressive symptoms, which in turn were related to reduced exercise and subsequently obesity.3 The present study investigated the association between fear of crime and higher BMI by using a demographically representative survey in Genesee County, Michigan.
METHODS Design and Sample Genesee County has experienced economic decline due to the closure of automobile-manufacturing plants. The rate of violent crime increased between
November/December 2015, Vol. 30, No. 2
For individual use only. Duplication or distribution prohibited by law.
Table Standardized Correlation Coefficients in the Path Model (n ¼ 3192) Age Gender Race/Ethnicity Education (Increasing Age) (Female) (African-American) (Greater No. of Years) Fear of crime Depressive symptoms Vigorous exercise Moderate exercise Body mass index
0.007*** 0.08***
0.19***
0.09*** 0.04*
DISCUSSION
0.19** 0.09***
0.05** 0.07***
0.09***
* p , 0.05. ** p , 0.01. *** p , 0.001.
2000 and 2011.5 To assess residents’ health, the Speak to Your Health! survey was developed.5–7 The survey was either administered over the telephone or in person or was mailed to a random sample of residents aged 18 years and older across all residential Census tracts in Genesee County. The survey response rate was 25%. The study was approved by the University of Michigan Behavioral Sciences Institutional Review Board. Three waves of survey data (2007, 2009, and 2011) were combined into a sample of 3192 adults. Measures BMI was calculated by using the respondents’ reported height and weight. A composite fear-of-crime score was calculated by using these items: (1) How fearful are you about crime in your neighborhood? (2) How safe is it to walk around alone in your neighborhood during the daytime? (3) How safe is it to walk around alone in your neighborhood after dark? and (4) Compared to other neighborhoods, the crime rate in your neighborhood is (very high to very low).8 The fear-ofcrime scale had a Cronbach a of .86. The depressive symptoms Brief Symptoms Inventory subscale9 asked participants how often during the past week they felt (1) lonely, (2) blue or sad, and (3) they had no interest in things. It had a Cronbach a of .89. Physical activity was categorized by the number of days a week the respondent engaged in activity, using two Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System questions: (1) How many days per week do you engage in moderate physical activity
American Journal of Health Promotion
relationship between fear of crime and BMI (Sobel test ¼ 3.97, p , .001). They accounted for 17% of the relationship between fear of crime and BMI. Moderate exercise mediated the relationship between depressive symptoms and BMI (Sobel test ¼ 4.26, p , .001).
(such as brisk walking, bicycling, gardening) for at least 10 minutes at a time? (2) How many days per week do you engage in vigorous physical activity (such as running, aerobics, and heavy yard work) for at least 10 minutes at a time?10 Analysis All statistical analyses were performed with Amos 21 (IBM SPSS 2012, Armonk, New York). Path analysis divided the total effect of fear of crime on BMI into direct effect and indirect effects mediated by depressive symptoms and exercise. Exercise was also allowed to mediate the relationship between depressive symptoms and BMI. The Sobel test assessed if the paths were statistically significant. The analysis was adjusted for age, gender, race/ethnicity, and education.
RESULTS The mean (6 SD) age and years of education of study participants were: 55 (6 16) years and 12 (6 2) years, respectively. The mean (6 SD) BMI was: 29 (6 7). A total of 1427 participants (44.7%) were African-American and 1765 (55.3%) were non-Hispanic white. Females were more likely to report fear of crime than males (Table). The model had an excellent data fit as demonstrated by the goodness-offit statistics (Figure). Fear of crime was positively associated with depressive symptoms. Fear of crime was not directly associated with moderate or vigorous exercise. Fear of crime was directly associated with higher BMI. Depressive symptoms mediated the
Fear of crime was associated with depressive symptoms, which in turn were associated with reduced exercise and subsequently higher BMI. As in prior research,3,7 women were more likely to report fear of crime than men. The lack of a direct association between fear of crime and exercise may not be surprising. A literature review concluded that the accessibility to indoor exercise facilities was a more important predictor of physical activity than neighborhood safety.11 Future research may consider the effects of fear of crime on outdoor and indoor exercise. One limitation was the survey response rate of 25%. The results may not be generalized to all U.S. areas. Causal and temporal associations could not be assessed. People tend to overestimate their height and underestimate their weight. Depressive symptoms may not be generalized to clinical depression. The influence of neighborhood-level variables on BMI was not assessed. In prior research, neighborhood deterioration led to fear of crime, which subsequently increased depressive symptoms.7 Fear of crime may, therefore, mediate the impact of neighborhood-level variables on BMI. The findings have implications for intervention research. Many obesity interventions have focused on creating farmer’s markets, enhancing public parks, and offering fitness programs. Such programs cannot fully succeed if people’s fear of crime and subsequent depressive symptoms prevent them from engaging in exercise and outdoor activities. Community interventions should focus on the larger forces causing fear of crime. A prominent factor contributing to fear of crime is crime itself. Block-watch programs have successfully reduced crime.12 They may, however, increase fear owing to the heightened awareness of crime.
November/December 2015, Vol. 30, No. 2
131
For individual use only. Duplication or distribution prohibited by law. References
Figure Pathways From Fear of Crime to Body Mass Index (BMI): Standardized Regression Coefficients (n ¼ 3192)
Goodness-of-fit statistics: v2(15) ¼ 30.35, p ¼ .011, v2/d.f. ¼ 2.02; Goodness of Fit Index ¼ 0.998; Normed Fit Index ¼ 0.981; Root Mean Square Error of Approximation ¼ 0.018. *p , .05; **p , .001. Adjusted for age, gender, race/ethnicity, and education.
Such elevated fear is justified in areas with high crime rates. Home security improvement was an effective intervention that reduced fear in a literature review.13 Interventions to increase residents’ social capital may also be effective in targeting the pathway from fear of crime to obesity; residents who trusted that their neighbors would assist them in dangerous situations reported decreased fear of crime.14 Other obesity-prevention interventions may seek to target the depressive symptoms caused by fear of crime. Medical providers should be alert to their patients’ fear of crime in their assessments. Treating patients’ depressive symptoms may promote exercise and prevent obesity. In conclusion, future research should assess the effect of neighborhood deterioration on fear of crime, depressive symptoms, and physical activity. Community interventions may focus on reducing neighborhood deterioration and its associated fear of crime as well as on providing mental health support and safe venues for exercise.
132
American Journal of Health Promotion
SO WHAT? Implications for Health Promotion Practitioners and Researchers What is already known on this topic? Fear of crime leads to obesity in some but not all studies. What does this article add? In a demographically representative sample, fear of crime was associated with depressive symptoms, which in turn were associated with reduced exercise and subsequently higher body mass index. What are the implications for health promotion practice or research? Research should assess the influence of obesity-prevention strategies seeking to encourage exercise by reducing neighborhood deterioration, fear of crime, and depressive symptoms.
Acknowledgments The Speak to Your Health Survey was supported by CDC grants U48/CCU515775 and 1U48DP001901-01 through the Prevention Research Center of Michigan. We thank the Speak to Your Health! Community Survey Committee and the survey respondents.
1. McLaugh E. Fear of crime. In: McLaughlin E, Muncie J, eds. The Sage Dictionary of Criminology. London, United Kingdom: Sage; 2001:118–119. 2. Stafford A, Cummins S, Ellaway A, et al. Pathways to obesity: identifying local, modifiable determinants of physical activity and diet. Soc Sci Med. 2007;65: 1882–1897. 3. Burdette AM, Hill TD. An examination of processes linking perceived neighborhood disorder and obesity. Soc Sci Med. 2008;67: 38–46. 4. Roman CG, Knight CR, Chalfin A, et al. The relation of the perceived environment to fear, physical activity, and health in public housing developments. J Public Health Policy. 2009;30(suppl 1):S286– S308. 5. Kodjebacheva G, Kruger DJ, Rybarczyk G, Cupal S. Racial/ethnic and gender differences in the association between depressive symptoms and higher body mass index. J Public Health (Oxf). 2015;37: 419–426. 6. Shirey LA, Griffith DM, Brady J, et al. Challenges and lessons learned in developing a community-based health survey. Prog Community Health Partnersh. 2008;2:99–104. 7. Kruger DJ, Reischl TM, Gee GC. Neighborhood social conditions mediate the association between physical deterioration and mental health. Am J Community Psychol. 2007;40:261–271. 8. Bureau of Justice Statistics and Office of Community Oriented Policing Services. Criminal victimization and perceptions of community safety in 12 cities, 1998. Available at: http://www.bjs.gov/content/ pub/pdf/cvpcs98.pdf. Accessed March 18, 2014. 9. Derogatis LR. Brief Symptom Inventory-18 (BSI-18) Administration, Scoring, and Procedures Manual. Minneapolis, Minn: NCS Pearson; 2001. 10. Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System Brief. No. 0903. Available at: http://www. health.ny.gov/statistics/brfss/reports/ docs/brfssbrief_physact_0903.pdf. Accessed March 18, 2014. 11. Humpel N, Owen N, Leslie E. Environmental factors associated with adults’ participation in physical activity: a review. Am J Prev Med. 2002;22:188–199. 12. Holloway K, Bennett T, Farrington DP. Does neighborhood watch reduce crime? Washington, DC: US Dept of Justice Office of Community Oriented Policing Services; 2008. Available at: http://www.cops.usdoj. gov/Publications/e040825133-res-review3. pdf. Accessed March 18, 2014. 13. Lorenc T, Petticrew M, Whitehead M, et al. Environmental interventions to reduce fear of crime: systematic review of effectiveness. Syst Rev. 2013;2:30. 14. Gibson CL, Zhao J, Lovrich NP, et al. Social integration, individual perceptions of collective efficacy, and fear of crime in there cities. Just Q. 2002; 19:537–564.
November/December 2015, Vol. 30, No. 2
www.HealthPromotionJournal.com EDITOR IN CHIEF Michael P. O’Donnell, PhD, MBA, MPH ASSOCIATE EDITORS IN CHIEF Jennifer E. Taylor, PhD Jennie Jacobs Kronenfeld, PhD Kwame Owusu-Edusei Jr., PhD* Kerry J. Redican, MPH, PhD, CHES
The Wisdom of Practice and the Rigor of Research
“The American Journal of Health Promotion provides a forum for that rare commodity — practical and intellectual exchange between researchers and practitioners.” Kenneth E. Warner, PhD Dean and Avedis Donabedian Distinguished University Professor of Public Health School of Public Health, University of Michigan
“The contents of the American Journal of Health Promotion are timely, relevant, and most important, written and reviewed by the most respected researchers in our field.” David R. Anderson, PhD, LP Senior Vice President & Chief Health Officer, StayWell Health Management
Be the first to know.
Available exclusively to ONLINE SUBSCRIBERS The American Journal of Health Promotion is now publishing all articles online, ahead of print. Articles are available as a PDF document for download as soon as they have completed the review process. This means you can access the very latest papers in the field of health promotion – in some cases up to a year before they appear in print. Subscribe Online at www.HealthPromotionJournal.com CUSTOMER SERVICE (US only) or 785-865-9402
Subscribe Today. 6 Issues/Year ISSN 0890-1171 (PRINT) ISSN 2168-6602 (ONLINE)
*Kwame Owusu-Edusei, Jr. is serving in his personal capacity. The views expressed are his own and do not necessarily represent the views of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention or the United States Government.
AMJ_1417_AD_subscription_2015_V2NoDisc.indd 1
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*Individual Subscriptions must be set up in the name of a single individual and mailed to a residential address. ** Print subscriptions are one print copy per issue. For multi-site institutions wishing to have a copy sent to each location, additional subscriptions are required. Tier 1 — Most Employers and Corporations except Health Organizations, Libraries and Schools Tier 2 — Health Organizations including Hospitals, Clinics, Health Promotion Providers, Insurance Companies and Voluntary Health Agencies Tier 3 — Libraries, Colleges and Universities ***University w.Archive Posting Privileges — Allows an unlimited number of faculty, students and staff to post an unlimited number of typeset accepted manuscripts on the school’s internal archive website. Includes print and online.
12/22/14 3:44 PM
Applied Research Brief: Weight Control; Emotional Health
Depressive Symptoms Mediate the Association Between Fear of Crime and Higher Body Mass Index Gergana Kodjebacheva, PhD; Maria Koleilat, DrPH, MPH; Daniel J. Kruger, PhD Abstract Purpose. To investigate pathways in the association between fear of crime and obesity. Design. A cross-sectional survey was administered among residents aged 18 years and older across all Census tracts. Setting. Genesee County, Michigan. Subjects. A total of 3192 residents. Measures. Body mass index (BMI) was calculated by using the respondents’ reported height and weight. Composite fear-of-crime and depressive symptoms scores were calculated by using several survey items. Analysis. Path analysis examined the effects of fear of crime on BMI. Results. Fear of crime was associated with higher BMI. Depressive symptoms mediated the relationship between fear of crime and BMI (p , .001). Moderate exercise mediated the association between depressive symptoms and BMI (p , .001). Conclusion. Fear of crime was associated with depressive symptoms, which in turn were associated with reduced exercise and subsequently higher BMI. (Am J Health Promot 2015; 30[2]:130–132.) Key Words: Fear of Crime, Depressive Symptoms, Exercise, Body Mass Index, Prevention Research. Manuscript format: brief; Research purpose: modeling/ relationship testing; Study design: nonexperimental; Outcome measure: biometric; Setting: local community; Health focus: weight control, fitness/physical activity; Strategy: skill building/behavior change; Target population age: adults, seniors; Target population circumstances: education/income level and race/ethnicity
Gergana Kodjebacheva, PhD, is with the Department of Public Health and Health Sciences, School of Health Professions and Studies, University of Michigan–Flint, and the International Institute, University of Michigan–Ann Arbor. Maria Koleilat, DrPH, MPH, is with the California State University–Fullerton. Daniel J. Kruger, PhD, is with the School of Public Health, University of Michigan–Ann Arbor. Send reprint requests to Gergana Kodjebacheva, PhD, Department of Public Health and Health Sciences, University of Michigan–Flint, 303 E Kearsley St, Flint, MI 48502; [email protected]. This manuscript was submitted January 3, 2014; revisions were requested March 17 and April 24, 2014; the manuscript was accepted for publication April 28, 2014. Copyright Ó 2015 by American Journal of Health Promotion, Inc. 0890-1171/15/$5.00 þ 0 DOI: 10.4278/ajhp.140103-ARB-6
130
American Journal of Health Promotion
PURPOSE Fear of crime is defined as the ‘‘state of alarm engendered by the belief that one is in danger of criminal victimization.’’1 It can be caused by neighborhood conditions such as poverty, vandalism, and public drinking.2,3 One consequence of fear of crime may be increased body mass index (BMI). Several hypotheses explain the association between fear of crime and obesity. Because people who fear crime avoid parks and walking trails,2 one hypothesis is that fear of crime leads to reduced exercise, thus contributing to obesity. Another hypothesis is that fear of crime leads to depressive symptoms, which increase cortisol levels and promote the storage of fat in the body.3 Yet another hypothesis is that depressive symptoms lead to obesity through discouraging exercise.3 Studies offer mixed support for these hypotheses. Fear of crime was not associated with obesity in some research.4 In another study, which overrepresented females and non-Hispanic whites, fear of crime was associated with depressive symptoms, which in turn were related to reduced exercise and subsequently obesity.3 The present study investigated the association between fear of crime and higher BMI by using a demographically representative survey in Genesee County, Michigan.
METHODS Design and Sample Genesee County has experienced economic decline due to the closure of automobile-manufacturing plants. The rate of violent crime increased between
November/December 2015, Vol. 30, No. 2
For individual use only. Duplication or distribution prohibited by law.
Table Standardized Correlation Coefficients in the Path Model (n ¼ 3192) Age Gender Race/Ethnicity Education (Increasing Age) (Female) (African-American) (Greater No. of Years) Fear of crime Depressive symptoms Vigorous exercise Moderate exercise Body mass index
0.007*** 0.08***
0.19***
0.09*** 0.04*
DISCUSSION
0.19** 0.09***
0.05** 0.07***
0.09***
* p , 0.05. ** p , 0.01. *** p , 0.001.
2000 and 2011.5 To assess residents’ health, the Speak to Your Health! survey was developed.5–7 The survey was either administered over the telephone or in person or was mailed to a random sample of residents aged 18 years and older across all residential Census tracts in Genesee County. The survey response rate was 25%. The study was approved by the University of Michigan Behavioral Sciences Institutional Review Board. Three waves of survey data (2007, 2009, and 2011) were combined into a sample of 3192 adults. Measures BMI was calculated by using the respondents’ reported height and weight. A composite fear-of-crime score was calculated by using these items: (1) How fearful are you about crime in your neighborhood? (2) How safe is it to walk around alone in your neighborhood during the daytime? (3) How safe is it to walk around alone in your neighborhood after dark? and (4) Compared to other neighborhoods, the crime rate in your neighborhood is (very high to very low).8 The fear-ofcrime scale had a Cronbach a of .86. The depressive symptoms Brief Symptoms Inventory subscale9 asked participants how often during the past week they felt (1) lonely, (2) blue or sad, and (3) they had no interest in things. It had a Cronbach a of .89. Physical activity was categorized by the number of days a week the respondent engaged in activity, using two Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System questions: (1) How many days per week do you engage in moderate physical activity
American Journal of Health Promotion
relationship between fear of crime and BMI (Sobel test ¼ 3.97, p , .001). They accounted for 17% of the relationship between fear of crime and BMI. Moderate exercise mediated the relationship between depressive symptoms and BMI (Sobel test ¼ 4.26, p , .001).
(such as brisk walking, bicycling, gardening) for at least 10 minutes at a time? (2) How many days per week do you engage in vigorous physical activity (such as running, aerobics, and heavy yard work) for at least 10 minutes at a time?10 Analysis All statistical analyses were performed with Amos 21 (IBM SPSS 2012, Armonk, New York). Path analysis divided the total effect of fear of crime on BMI into direct effect and indirect effects mediated by depressive symptoms and exercise. Exercise was also allowed to mediate the relationship between depressive symptoms and BMI. The Sobel test assessed if the paths were statistically significant. The analysis was adjusted for age, gender, race/ethnicity, and education.
RESULTS The mean (6 SD) age and years of education of study participants were: 55 (6 16) years and 12 (6 2) years, respectively. The mean (6 SD) BMI was: 29 (6 7). A total of 1427 participants (44.7%) were African-American and 1765 (55.3%) were non-Hispanic white. Females were more likely to report fear of crime than males (Table). The model had an excellent data fit as demonstrated by the goodness-offit statistics (Figure). Fear of crime was positively associated with depressive symptoms. Fear of crime was not directly associated with moderate or vigorous exercise. Fear of crime was directly associated with higher BMI. Depressive symptoms mediated the
Fear of crime was associated with depressive symptoms, which in turn were associated with reduced exercise and subsequently higher BMI. As in prior research,3,7 women were more likely to report fear of crime than men. The lack of a direct association between fear of crime and exercise may not be surprising. A literature review concluded that the accessibility to indoor exercise facilities was a more important predictor of physical activity than neighborhood safety.11 Future research may consider the effects of fear of crime on outdoor and indoor exercise. One limitation was the survey response rate of 25%. The results may not be generalized to all U.S. areas. Causal and temporal associations could not be assessed. People tend to overestimate their height and underestimate their weight. Depressive symptoms may not be generalized to clinical depression. The influence of neighborhood-level variables on BMI was not assessed. In prior research, neighborhood deterioration led to fear of crime, which subsequently increased depressive symptoms.7 Fear of crime may, therefore, mediate the impact of neighborhood-level variables on BMI. The findings have implications for intervention research. Many obesity interventions have focused on creating farmer’s markets, enhancing public parks, and offering fitness programs. Such programs cannot fully succeed if people’s fear of crime and subsequent depressive symptoms prevent them from engaging in exercise and outdoor activities. Community interventions should focus on the larger forces causing fear of crime. A prominent factor contributing to fear of crime is crime itself. Block-watch programs have successfully reduced crime.12 They may, however, increase fear owing to the heightened awareness of crime.
November/December 2015, Vol. 30, No. 2
131
For individual use only. Duplication or distribution prohibited by law. References
Figure Pathways From Fear of Crime to Body Mass Index (BMI): Standardized Regression Coefficients (n ¼ 3192)
Goodness-of-fit statistics: v2(15) ¼ 30.35, p ¼ .011, v2/d.f. ¼ 2.02; Goodness of Fit Index ¼ 0.998; Normed Fit Index ¼ 0.981; Root Mean Square Error of Approximation ¼ 0.018. *p , .05; **p , .001. Adjusted for age, gender, race/ethnicity, and education.
Such elevated fear is justified in areas with high crime rates. Home security improvement was an effective intervention that reduced fear in a literature review.13 Interventions to increase residents’ social capital may also be effective in targeting the pathway from fear of crime to obesity; residents who trusted that their neighbors would assist them in dangerous situations reported decreased fear of crime.14 Other obesity-prevention interventions may seek to target the depressive symptoms caused by fear of crime. Medical providers should be alert to their patients’ fear of crime in their assessments. Treating patients’ depressive symptoms may promote exercise and prevent obesity. In conclusion, future research should assess the effect of neighborhood deterioration on fear of crime, depressive symptoms, and physical activity. Community interventions may focus on reducing neighborhood deterioration and its associated fear of crime as well as on providing mental health support and safe venues for exercise.
132
American Journal of Health Promotion
SO WHAT? Implications for Health Promotion Practitioners and Researchers What is already known on this topic? Fear of crime leads to obesity in some but not all studies. What does this article add? In a demographically representative sample, fear of crime was associated with depressive symptoms, which in turn were associated with reduced exercise and subsequently higher body mass index. What are the implications for health promotion practice or research? Research should assess the influence of obesity-prevention strategies seeking to encourage exercise by reducing neighborhood deterioration, fear of crime, and depressive symptoms.
Acknowledgments The Speak to Your Health Survey was supported by CDC grants U48/CCU515775 and 1U48DP001901-01 through the Prevention Research Center of Michigan. We thank the Speak to Your Health! Community Survey Committee and the survey respondents.
1. McLaugh E. Fear of crime. In: McLaughlin E, Muncie J, eds. The Sage Dictionary of Criminology. London, United Kingdom: Sage; 2001:118–119. 2. Stafford A, Cummins S, Ellaway A, et al. Pathways to obesity: identifying local, modifiable determinants of physical activity and diet. Soc Sci Med. 2007;65: 1882–1897. 3. Burdette AM, Hill TD. An examination of processes linking perceived neighborhood disorder and obesity. Soc Sci Med. 2008;67: 38–46. 4. Roman CG, Knight CR, Chalfin A, et al. The relation of the perceived environment to fear, physical activity, and health in public housing developments. J Public Health Policy. 2009;30(suppl 1):S286– S308. 5. Kodjebacheva G, Kruger DJ, Rybarczyk G, Cupal S. Racial/ethnic and gender differences in the association between depressive symptoms and higher body mass index. J Public Health (Oxf). 2015;37: 419–426. 6. Shirey LA, Griffith DM, Brady J, et al. Challenges and lessons learned in developing a community-based health survey. Prog Community Health Partnersh. 2008;2:99–104. 7. Kruger DJ, Reischl TM, Gee GC. Neighborhood social conditions mediate the association between physical deterioration and mental health. Am J Community Psychol. 2007;40:261–271. 8. Bureau of Justice Statistics and Office of Community Oriented Policing Services. Criminal victimization and perceptions of community safety in 12 cities, 1998. Available at: http://www.bjs.gov/content/ pub/pdf/cvpcs98.pdf. Accessed March 18, 2014. 9. Derogatis LR. Brief Symptom Inventory-18 (BSI-18) Administration, Scoring, and Procedures Manual. Minneapolis, Minn: NCS Pearson; 2001. 10. Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System Brief. No. 0903. Available at: http://www. health.ny.gov/statistics/brfss/reports/ docs/brfssbrief_physact_0903.pdf. Accessed March 18, 2014. 11. Humpel N, Owen N, Leslie E. Environmental factors associated with adults’ participation in physical activity: a review. Am J Prev Med. 2002;22:188–199. 12. Holloway K, Bennett T, Farrington DP. Does neighborhood watch reduce crime? Washington, DC: US Dept of Justice Office of Community Oriented Policing Services; 2008. Available at: http://www.cops.usdoj. gov/Publications/e040825133-res-review3. pdf. Accessed March 18, 2014. 13. Lorenc T, Petticrew M, Whitehead M, et al. Environmental interventions to reduce fear of crime: systematic review of effectiveness. Syst Rev. 2013;2:30. 14. Gibson CL, Zhao J, Lovrich NP, et al. Social integration, individual perceptions of collective efficacy, and fear of crime in there cities. Just Q. 2002; 19:537–564.
November/December 2015, Vol. 30, No. 2
www.HealthPromotionJournal.com EDITOR IN CHIEF Michael P. O’Donnell, PhD, MBA, MPH ASSOCIATE EDITORS IN CHIEF Jennifer E. Taylor, PhD Jennie Jacobs Kronenfeld, PhD Kwame Owusu-Edusei Jr., PhD* Kerry J. Redican, MPH, PhD, CHES
The Wisdom of Practice and the Rigor of Research
“The American Journal of Health Promotion provides a forum for that rare commodity — practical and intellectual exchange between researchers and practitioners.” Kenneth E. Warner, PhD Dean and Avedis Donabedian Distinguished University Professor of Public Health School of Public Health, University of Michigan
“The contents of the American Journal of Health Promotion are timely, relevant, and most important, written and reviewed by the most respected researchers in our field.” David R. Anderson, PhD, LP Senior Vice President & Chief Health Officer, StayWell Health Management
Be the first to know.
Available exclusively to ONLINE SUBSCRIBERS The American Journal of Health Promotion is now publishing all articles online, ahead of print. Articles are available as a PDF document for download as soon as they have completed the review process. This means you can access the very latest papers in the field of health promotion – in some cases up to a year before they appear in print. Subscribe Online at www.HealthPromotionJournal.com CUSTOMER SERVICE (US only) or 785-865-9402
Subscribe Today. 6 Issues/Year ISSN 0890-1171 (PRINT) ISSN 2168-6602 (ONLINE)
*Kwame Owusu-Edusei, Jr. is serving in his personal capacity. The views expressed are his own and do not necessarily represent the views of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention or the United States Government.
AMJ_1417_AD_subscription_2015_V2NoDisc.indd 1
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University w/Archive Posting Privileges*** $895
*Individual Subscriptions must be set up in the name of a single individual and mailed to a residential address. ** Print subscriptions are one print copy per issue. For multi-site institutions wishing to have a copy sent to each location, additional subscriptions are required. Tier 1 — Most Employers and Corporations except Health Organizations, Libraries and Schools Tier 2 — Health Organizations including Hospitals, Clinics, Health Promotion Providers, Insurance Companies and Voluntary Health Agencies Tier 3 — Libraries, Colleges and Universities ***University w.Archive Posting Privileges — Allows an unlimited number of faculty, students and staff to post an unlimited number of typeset accepted manuscripts on the school’s internal archive website. Includes print and online.
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