Bioresource Technology xxx (2014) xxx–xxx

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Degradation of morphine in opium poppy processing waste composting Yin Quan Wang a,⇑, Jin Lin Zhang b, Frank Schuchardt c, Yan Wang a a

College of Pharmaceutical Science, Gansu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Lanzhou 730000, China State Key Laboratory of Grassland Agro-ecosystems, College of Pastoral Agriculture Science and Technology, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China c Johann Heinrich von Thünen-Institut (vTI), Federal Research Institute for Rural Areas, Forestry and Fisheries, Institute of Agricultural Technology and Biosystems Engineering, Braunschweig 38116, Germany b

h i g h l i g h t s  Opium poppy processing waste has good biodegradable characteristics for composting.  The residual morphine was completely removed after day 30 of composting.  The compost was 55.3% of OM, 3.3% of total nutrients and 7.6 of pH.  A turning frequency of every 10 days for composting of the waste is recommended.

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history: Available online xxxx Keywords: Composting Opium poppy processing waste Turning frequency Morphine degradation

a b s t r a c t To investigate morphine degradation and optimize turning frequency in opium poppy processing waste composting, a pilot scale windrow composting trial was run for 55 days. Four treatments were designed as without turning (A1), every 5 days turning (A2), every 10 days turning (A3) and every 15 days turning (A4). During composting, a range of physicochemical parameters including the residual morphine degradation, temperature, pH, and the contents of total C, total N, total P and total K were investigated. For all treatments, the residual morphine content decreased below the detection limit and reached the safety standards after day 30 of composting, the longest duration of high temperature (P50 °C) was observed in A3, pH increased 16.9–17.54%, total carbon content decreased 15.5–22.5%, C/N ratio reduced from 46 to 26, and the content of total phosphorus and total potassium increased slightly. The final compost obtained by a mixture of all four piles was up to 55.3% of organic matter, 3.3% of total nutrient (N, P2O5 and K2O) and 7.6 of pH. A turning frequency of every ten days for a windrow composting of opium poppy processing waste is recommended to produce homogenous compost. Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Opium poppy (Papaver somniferum) is a medicinally important plant, because it is the only commercial source for producing several benzylisoquinoline alkaloids (BIAs) with pharmaceutical importance, including the pain reliever morphine, the cough suppressant codeine and the antitumor agent noscapine (Frick et al., 2007; Wijekoon and Facchini, 2012). Morphine is the predominant alkaloid found in the varieties of opium poppy plants cultivated in most producing countries (Bural et al., 2010), usually accounting for 45–90% of alkaloid content (Stranska et al., 2013). According to International Narcotics Control Board (INCB) reports, the manufacture of morphine has followed a rising trend over the past two decades, standing at 416 tons in the year 2010, in which the United ⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +86 8765342; fax: +86 8765385. E-mail address: [email protected] (Y.Q. Wang).

Kingdom, the United States, France, Australia and Iran were the leading manufacturers of natural alkaloids, accounting for 74% of global manufacture. Four other countries reported the manufacture of morphine in quantities of more than 10 tons: China (18.5 tons), Japan (12.5 tons), Slovakia (11.5 tons) and Hungary (10.5 tons) (INCB, 2011). In most countries including China, the pharmaceutical alkaloids are extracted mainly from the crushed dried capsules emptied of seeds (Mahdavi-Damghani et al., 2010). A large quantity of solid opium poppy processing waste is consequentially generated yearly as a by-product from raw materials. The waste is a valuable resource for organic fertilizer because it has a high content of organic matter and it is free of any impurities. Moreover, the waste still remains a certain amount of morphine, which can cause serious hygiene hazards, odour pollution, or even potentially drug-related crimes, if it is directly applied to agricultural land as fertilizer or indiscriminately discarded as an industrial waste (Suthar and Singh, 2012).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2014.02.019 0960-8524/Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article in press as: Wang, Y.Q., et al. Degradation of morphine in opium poppy processing waste composting. Bioresour. Technol. (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2014.02.019

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Y.Q. Wang et al. / Bioresource Technology xxx (2014) xxx–xxx

Composting has been identified as an effective and economical method for the treatment of solid organic waste prior to land application. During the composting process, microorganisms transform the highly heterogeneous solid state organic matter to a usable, and value added compost product with beneficial physical, chemical and biological characteristics for application to soil systems (Ogunwande et al., 2008; Ramaswamy et al., 2010; Guo et al., 2012). Also, composting process destroys most parasites (pathogens and viruses contained in the waste) and considerably reduces odour emissions by reducing the levels of biodegradable hydrocarbons (Barrington et al., 2002). The windrow/pile composting is the most common method of composting of organic waste in most countries (Sykes et al., 2007). The windrows are turned regularly to allow air to blend into the waste, improving oxygen content, microbiological activity, removing excessive heat, water vapour and compost odours trapped and commonly believed to be a factor that affects the rate of decomposition as well as compost quality (Getahun et al., 2012). Turning frequency significantly affects temperature, moisture content, dry matter, pH, total carbon, total nitrogen, C/N ratio of composting piles (Tiquia et al., 1997; Wong et al., 2001; Ogunwande et al., 2008; Getahun et al., 2012). However, the high turning frequency will adversely increase the composting cost, and will be postponed the release of ammonia that has accumulated in the internal void space of compost (Parkinson et al., 2004). The opium poppy processing waste possess high pectins, cellulose and hemicelluloses, and moisture leading to a reduced porosity and compact texture, thereby puts severe constraints on its biological degradation for composting. Current literature concerning the degradation of morphine in opium poppy processing waste composting is very limited because the cultivation of opium poppy and production of opium is strictly controlled to prevent making of illegal and highly addictive drugs such as heroin and illegal flavouring use. Thus, a pilot scale pile composting trial was performed to investigate morphine degradation and optimize turning frequency during composting of opium poppy processing waste. 2. Methods 2.1. Description of the study area Composting experiment was carried out for 55 days between March and June, 2010 at the official opium poppy processing factory located at an elevation of approximately 1750 m above sea level and is 250 km northwest of Lanzhou, the provincial capital of Gansu, China. Its geographical coordinates are approximately 37°400 N latitude and 102°510 E longitude. During this study, the maximum and the minimum temperature of the area were observed to be 7 °C and 22 °C, respectively while the maximum and the minimum precipitation were 6.1 mm and 8.4 mm, respectively. 2.2. Experimental set-up The opium poppy processing waste was generated after extraction of the medicinal alkaloids. Composting methods adopted in this experiment was the windrow/pile composting. Each pile was

a typical trapezoid shape, being approximately 1.2 m high; 2.5 m across at the base and 10 m long, so as to keep high temperature level within the pile and also allow oxygen flow into the core of the pile. Each windrow was covered with black shading net with 95% shade rate on the top for retaining moisture and protecting it from heavy rains. The initial properties of the opium poppy processing waste are summarized in Table 1. Four turning frequencies were applied: Pile A1 without turning, pile A2, A3 and A4 were turned every 5 days, every 10 days and every 15 days, respectively. The total dry weight of each pile was approximately 2500 kg. The piles were turned using a truck with front-end loader until the end of the composting period. The initial moisture content of each windrow was adjusted to 60% (w/v) at the beginning of composting by sprinkling water. No further moisture adjustment was done thereafter. During the composting process, the ambient temperature and the temperature within each windrow at a depth of 60 cm under the pile surface in the front, central and hind part of the pile were measured daily.

2.3. Sample collection and analytical methods A representative composite sample of approximately 6 kg was collected from five subsamples after mixing homogenizing and partitioning by quartering. Triplicate composite samples were obtained from each pile at the beginning and then 10 days until the end of the composting. The samples were air-dried, ground to pass through 0.5 mm-sieve, mixed thoroughly to make them homogeneous and then stored in polythene re-sealable bags in a refrigerator for analysis. Morphine was determined by HPLC (1100 series HPLC system, Agilent Technologies, USA) and separated at 25 °C using an SUPELCOSIL LC-Si column (250 mm  4.6 mm i.d., 5 mm). HPLC conditions were as follows: mobile phase, acetonitrile (0.01 mol/ L) – KH2PO4 (0.005 mol/L) – C7H15NaO3S (20:40:40), flow rate, 1.0 mL/min, the detection wavelength was 220 nm. The sample was extracted by 20% methanol containing 5% acetic acid with ultrasonic for 30 min. The injection volume was 10 lL (Pharmacopoeia Commission of PRC, 2010). Moisture content was obtained by drying at 105 °C for 24 h in a hot-air oven, pH was determined using double distilled water suspension of each compost in a ratio of 1:5 (w/v) using pH meter (Sartorius, PB-10 Standard a meter) (Nishanth and Biswas, 2008). Total carbon (C) and total nitrogen (N) were analyzed with the Dumas combustion method (Flash EA-1112, Thermo Scientific, Waltham, Massachusetts, USA) (Bao, 2000). After H2SO4–H2O2 digest, the contents of total N, total P, total K of compost were determined by spectrophotometry, and flame photometry respectively (Tiquia et al., 1997).

2.4. Statistical analysis The results reported are the means of three replicates. Basic statistical analyses were carried out using SPSS for Windows. Analysis of variances (ANOVA) was analyzed and Duncan test was used for determining any significant differences among the parameters analyzed with time. The significant level was set at P < 0.05.

Table 1 The initial properties of opium poppy processing waste.a Total C (g/kg) 369 ± 2

Total N (g/kg)

Total P (g/kg)

Total K (g/kg)

Morphine content (mg/kg)

C/N ratio

pH

8.04 ± 0.03

4.60 ± 0.42

9.42 ± 0.12

1132 ± 31

46 ± 2.24

6.44 ± 0.02

Mean and standard error are shown (n = 3). a Measured based on dry matter.

Please cite this article in press as: Wang, Y.Q., et al. Degradation of morphine in opium poppy processing waste composting. Bioresour. Technol. (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2014.02.019

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3. Results and discussion

70

3.1. Morphine content

60

3.2. Temperature The temperature profile in the four piles as a function of time is shown in Fig. 2 along with the ambient temperature for the experimental period. As shown, all piles were well above the ambient temperature throughout the composting process. Initially, the temperatures in the piles ranged from 25.5 ± 0.6 °C to 28 ± 0.5 °C. As composting processed, the temperatures of all piles further increased, exceeding 50 °C after 14 days of composting and entering the thermophilic stage indicating the quick establishment of microbial activities associated with respiratory metabolism in the composting piles. After the thermophilic stage, the temperature of all treatments declined gradually until they reached ambient

Morphine content(mg/kg)

1500

A1 A2 A3 A4

1000

500

0

0

10

20

30

40

50

50

Temperature (°C)

The change of morphine content in the four piles as a function of time is shown in Fig. 1. The morphine content in all treatments showed a rapid decrease as decomposition progressed. The morphine content was affected significantly (P < 0.05) by the turning frequency. The morphine content in pile A3 and A2 was 87 ± 8, 98 ± 6 mg/kg DM at day 20, respectively, which found to be significantly lower than that in A1 (305 ± 11 mg/kg DM) and A4 (223 ± 9 mg/kg DM) (P < 0.05). After day 30, the morphine content of all piles decreased below a detection limit and reached the safety standards, suggesting that the residual morphine in opium poppy processing waste can be rapidly and completely removed by the simple, effective, environmentally sound composting process. Morphine is quickly degraded during the mesophilic or moderate-temperature phase of composting, might be attributed to more rapidly oxidized by enzymes into the intermediates, such as morphinone, a product of morphine catalysed by an NADP-dependent morphine dehydrogenase from Pseudomonas putida M10 commonly present in compost substrates (Bruce et al., 1990; Castano et al., 2011). Morphinone can be served as a source of carbon and energy for growth of compost microorganisms (Bruce et al., 1990), and/or is degraded by multienzyme complexes to break down into an end product of L-tyrosine (Facchini and Park, 2003). L-tyrosine can be used as carbon or nitrogen sources for growth of microorganisms (Singh et al., 2011).

A1 A2 A3 A4 ambient

40

30

20

10

0 0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Composting time (days) Fig. 2. Temperature profile of the composting materials over time. Error bars represent the standard deviations of the means (n = 3).

temperature at between 24 ± 0.6 °C and 32 ± 0.7 °C. Throughout the composting process, the evolution trend of the temperature was similar in all piles. In pile A3 (10 days turning interval), the temperature reached 62 °C (maximum in all four piles) on day 15, and the thermophilic stage lasted for 13 days and relatively early reached to ambient temperature. In pile A2, the turning frequency was the highest (5 days turning interval) presented more short-term periodical fluctuations of temperature and took much longer time for reaching ambient temperature due to evaporation occurring and drying out the compost below the optimum level. However, since pile A1 (without turning) and A4 (turned every 15 days) in the whole composting period, air circulation was likely to be inhibited, and as a result, the temperature decreased and the decomposition process became very slow (Getahun et al., 2012). 3.3. pH During composting the pH of all treatments followed a similar increasing changing trend. There was significant difference between the composting days (P < 0.05). The pH of the composted waste increased considerably from 6.44 ± 0.02 at beginning to 7.34 ± 0.02, 7.47 ± 0.03, 7.39 ± 0.04 and 7.45 ± 0.02 on day 10 for pile A1, A2, A3 and A4, and thereafter increased gradually to 7.62 ± 0.06, 7.73 ± 0.05, 7.67 ± 0.03 and 7.66 ± 0.05 on day 40 for pile A1, A2, A3 and A4. In the final composting product, the pH in all treatments decreased to between 7.53 ± 0.04 and 7.57 ± 0.05 (Fig. 3). The initial low pH value is typically due to anaerobic conditions that are established in the waste materials prior to the commencement of the composting process, resulting in the formation of organic acids. (Said-Pullicino et al., 2007), while the later increase may imply the metabolic degradation of organic acid or loss by volatilization and/or intensive proteolysis of liberating ammonia compounds due to protein degradation (Kalamdhad and Kazmi, 2009). The final dropping of pH in all treatments could be due to a consequence of new synthesis of organic acids and production of phenolic compounds during cooling phase. In conformity with this finding, Ahmed et al. (2007), Ogunwande et al. (2008) and Getahun et al. (2012) reported a decreasing pattern of pH during composting.

60

Composting time (days) Fig. 1. Changes of morphine content (mg/kg DM) during composting of opium poppy processing waste at different turning frequencies. Error bars represent the standard deviations of the means (n = 3).

3.4. Total C Total C content decreased as decomposition progressed. Initially, the total carbon content of each pile was 369 ± 2 g/kg DM,

Please cite this article in press as: Wang, Y.Q., et al. Degradation of morphine in opium poppy processing waste composting. Bioresour. Technol. (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2014.02.019

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8.0

11

A1 A2 A3 A4

7.0

Total N (g/kg)

pH

7.5

10 A1 A2 A3 A4

9

6.5

8

7

6.0 0

10

20

30

40

50

60

0

Fig. 3. Changes of pH during opium poppy processing waste composting at different turning frequencies. Error bars represent the standard deviations of the means (n = 3).

Total C (g/kg)

40

60

Fig. 5. Changes of total nitrogen content (g/kg DM) during opium poppy processing waste composting at different turning frequencies. Error bars represent the standard deviations of the means (n = 3).

which may result from the net loss of dry mass in terms of carbon dioxide, as well as the water loss by evaporation caused by heat evolved during oxidation of organic matter (Huang et al., 2004).

380 A1 A2 A3 A4

360

20

Composting time (days)

Composting time (days)

3.6. Total P and total K Total P and K contents in all treatments showed a slight increase during composting. Moreover, no significant variations in total P and K were observed between both turning frequencies and composting days (Table 2). It could be due to the net loss of dry mass in all runs (Huang et al., 2004).

340

320

3.7. Final compost quality

300

but the content significantly decreased to 312 ± 2, 286 ± 1, 296 ± 1 and 308 ± 1 g/kg DMW, respectively, in pile A1, pile A2, pile A3 and pile A4 at the end of the composting. There were significant differences in total C between the composting days (P < 0.05) and also turning frequencies (P < 0.05). The biggest percentage decrease of total carbon was 22.5% observed in pile A2 (highest turning frequency), while the lowest percentage decrease was 15.5% observed in pile A1 (Fig. 4). This variation of total C can be attributed to the degradation of easily degradable compounds such as proteins, cellulose and hemi-cellulose, which is utilized by microorganisms as carbon and nitrogen sources (Huang et al., 2004).

Table 3 showed the main chemical characteristics of the final compost mixed by all four piles. The organic matter content of the compost was up to 55.3%, more than that of the China standard NY 25-32012 for organic fertilizer (45%). Total nutrient content (N, P2O5 and K2O) was up to 3.33%, less than the total nutrients of 5% in the Chinese standard for organic fertilizer. pH of the final compost was 7.6 ranged from 5.5 to 8.5, which is also compliant with the pH limit values in China organic fertilizer standards. A C/N ratio of higher than 15–30 indicates an initial net immobilization of N will occur (Dalal et al., 2010). In this study, however, the final C/N ratio of compost obtained was 26, which could lead to nitrogen immobilization if applied to soils (de Oliveira et al., 2002). The reasons for the high C/N ratio may be a lack of nitrogen and/or water, with the effect of a reduced microbial activity during composting. It also may be due to the waste containing more cellulose and are very slow to break down. An addition of water and/or a nitrogen source (for example urea or manure) at the beginning of the composting would increase carbon degradation and would increase the total nutrient content of compost.

3.5. Total N

4. Conclusion

Fig. 5 shows total N contents in all treatments increased with composting time. At the beginning of composting, the content of total nitrogen was 8.04 ± 0.03 g/kg DM, which then finally increased to 11.64 ± 0.25, 11.31 ± 0.04, 11.32 ± 0.09 and 11.25 ± 0.14 g/kg DM, respectively, in pile A1, pile A2, pile A3 and pile A4. Significant difference in total N was observed between the composting days (P < 0.05) and turning frequencies (P < 0.05),

During the pilot scale opium poppy processing waste composting, the morphine contents of all treatments decreased below the detection limit and reached to the safety standards after 30 days. Both of total C content and C/N decreased sharply, while the content of total N, total P and total K increased slightly. The compost obtained was up to 55.3% of organic matter, 3.3% of total nutrients (N, P2O5 and K2O) and 7.6 of pH. A turning frequency of every ten

280 0

20

40

60

Composting time (days) Fig. 4. Changes of total C content (g/kg DM) during opium poppy processing waste composting at different turning frequencies. Error bars represent the standard deviations of the means (n = 3).

Please cite this article in press as: Wang, Y.Q., et al. Degradation of morphine in opium poppy processing waste composting. Bioresour. Technol. (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2014.02.019

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Y.Q. Wang et al. / Bioresource Technology xxx (2014) xxx–xxx Table 2 Changes in total P and total K during composting of the opium poppy processing waste.a Parameters

Treatments

Composting time (days) Day 0

Day 10

Day 20

Day 30

Day 40

Day 50

Total P (g/kg DM)

A1 A2 A3 A4

4.60 ± 0.42 4.60 ± 0.42 4.60 ± 0.42 4.60 ± 0.42

4.60 ± 0.46 4.61 ± 0.37 4.60 ± 0.33 4.60 ± 0.38

4.61 ± 0.35 4.60 ± 0.38 4.61 ± 0.29 4.62 ± 0.36

4.61 ± 0.38 4.62 ± 0.28 4.61 ± 0.37 4.62 ± 0.39

4.63 ± 0.46 4.61 ± 0.46 4.62 ± 0.46 4.61 ± 0.46

4.63 ± 0.36 4.61 ± 0.28 4.62 ± 0.33 4.61 ± 0.40

Total K (g/kg DM)

A1 A2 A3 A4

9.42 ± 0.12 9.42 ± 0.12 9.42 ± 0.12 9.42 ± 0.12

9.42 ± 0.13 9.41 ± 0.14 9.41 ± 0.12 9.42 ± 0.16

9.42 ± 0.16 9.41 ± 0.13 9.44 ± 0.14 9.42 ± 0.18

9.41 ± 0.14 9.42 ± 0.12 9.45 ± 0.13 9.42 ± 0.15

9.42 ± 0.12 9.44 ± 0.13 9.47 ± 0.14 9.42 ± 0.11

9.42 ± 0.15 9.47 ± 0.12 9.48 ± 0.15 9.43 ± 0.16

A1 = without turning; A2 = every 5 days turning; A3 = every 10 days turning; A4 = every 15 days turning. a Means of the three replicates are shown.

Table 3 Chemical characteristics of the final compost obtained.a

a b

Parameters

Compost mixed

China organic fertilizer standardsb

Moisture (%) Organic matter content (%) Total N (%) Total P2O5 (%) Total K2O (%) Total nutrients (%) pH C/N ratio

28.3 ± 1.2 55.3 ± 2.2

630 P45

1.13 ± 0.04 1.06 ± 0.02 1.14 ± 0.06 3.33 7.6 ± 0.05 26

– – – 5 5.5–8.5 –

Except for moisture, all data are expressed on a dry weight basis. According to Chinese standard for organic fertilizer NY 525-2012.

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Please cite this article in press as: Wang, Y.Q., et al. Degradation of morphine in opium poppy processing waste composting. Bioresour. Technol. (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2014.02.019

Degradation of morphine in opium poppy processing waste composting.

To investigate morphine degradation and optimize turning frequency in opium poppy processing waste composting, a pilot scale windrow composting trial ...
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