Defining experiential perceptions
learning: nurse tutors’
Philip Burnard
Experiential learning and experiential learning methods have been widely discussed in the nursing education literature. This paper offers some of the findings from a study into nurse tutors’ and student nurses’ perceptions of experiential learning. In the part of the study described here, 12 nurse tutors were interviewed in depth about the way that they defined experiential learning and experiential learning methods. In this paper, those definitions are compared and contrasted with definitions in the literature and implications for nurse education are identified.
INTRODUCTION Experiential methods
learning
and experiential
have been advocated
various aspects of nursing. on
the
topic
different
define
a process
from
that such life experience for
when
considering
formal
educational
writers,
on the other
iential
learning
learning
learning
should people
be accounted for
entry Many
into other
hand, have viewed expera humanistic
perspective
and have offered
the view that human
ence
to
is central
as
life and suggested
programmes.
from
in
and associates
saw experiential
of learning
of
A variety of writers
experiential
sorts of ways. Keeton
( 1988) for example,
learning
in the teaching
the
process
of
experilearning
(Burnard 1990b; Heron 1989; Rowan 1988). Widening the debate about experiential learning further,
Weil and McGill (1989)
argued
that
it was useful to consider
the theory and practice
of experiential
by reference
to a meta-
phor of four villages. They suggested
that exper-
iential learning
theorists
appeared
to hold four
distinct points of view (or inhabit four different villages). They went on to suggest that the people in each unaware They
of those
four
villages
of the existence
quote
(f’rom
an
tended
to be
of the other unknown
three.
source)
as
follows: ‘A person not
who knows only his own village will
understand
familiar
it; only
in the
elsewhere
light
by seeing
of what
will we be enabled
what
is the
is
norm
to think afresh
about what we know too well’. (Weil 8r McGill 1989, p 4) Weil and Mcgill suggested well not to become what experiential The four follows:
Philip Burnard PhD MSc MN RGN DipN Cert Ed RNT Director of Postgraduate Nursing Studies, University of Wales College of Medicine, Heath Park, Cardiff, Wales (Requests for offprints to PB) Manuscript accepted 3 July 1991
learning
learning
‘villages’
that we would do
too narrow that
minded
about
is and what it is not. they
describe
are
as
Village one The assessment and accreditation of ‘prior’ experiential learning. Essentially, the people in
30
NURSE EDUCATION
TODAY
this village view experiential from
life experience
‘totted
learning
and learning
up’ to enable
as learning that can be
adults to gain exemption
from certain degree and diploma courses. UK for example, degrees degree
nurses who have not got ‘first’
can sometimes courses
In the
gain entrance
to master’s
by virtue of their previous
sonal and professional
per-
experience.
continuing theory
and change
education.
in higher and
In this village, experien-
is often tied closely to adult learning
and the notion
centred
of nurse tutors’ and student nurses’ perceptions of experiential
approaches
of developing
to teaching
learner-
and social change.
village, experiential concerned this sense,
learning
with helping
circumstances
In this
is a radical process
people
to change
in which they find themselves. it is more
‘problem-posing’ described
of those interviews were analysed
Strauss
1967). Detailed checks for the validity of
of grounded
akin
approach
elsewhere
to Freire’s to
in this chapter
the In
(1972)
education,
were instituted
A number to check
recheck
that
researcher
asked
the categories
faithfully
generated
represented
report
offers
that
by the
their percep-
only part of the analysis:
which
definitions
relates
to definitions.
are of experiential
learning,
itself and of the concept of ‘experiential methods’.
It was felt to be important
identified
how nurse educators’
about experiential ceeding
of and
1989).
on
learning
to identify
learning that it be
thought
and felt
methods before how
they
used
prosuch
methods.
In order tutors
to begin
understood
learning, of defining
cesses and the people
how they defined
of this village are often
with the humanistic
school of psychol-
that it is this ‘village’ that has
influenced
the development
of
experiential learning in nurse education. Weil and McGill’s argument, then, is that we can learn much from all approaches
offered
their methods
terms. In the first section, it is noted Such
the expression definitions
‘experiential
were
by the tutors as a response
such as ‘how would learning?’ At other emerged
how nurse
of experiential
sometimes to a question
you define experiential times, the definition
during the interview
as a means of the
tial learning - from the political aspect of it, from
educator making clear how he used that term. In the second section, the nurse tutors
the adult learning
described
approach,
to experien-
learning’.
to understand the concept
it was useful to explore
Personal growth and development. Here, the emphasis is on the individual’s learning pro-
most strongly
at various stages in
tutors
in the study were
8c
DEFINING THE FIELD
Village four
ogy, It is arguable
(Glasser
and has a
‘political’ aspect to it.
aligned
theory
the analysis phase of the project.
Those
learning
Part
style
This
Village three
1990a).
interviewing
in the
tions (Berg
and learning.
(Burnard
of 12 nurse tutors from various parts of the UK.
specifically
Experiential
learning
of the study involved the in-depth
the findings
learning
tial learning
This paper offers some of the findings of a study
Transcriptions
Village two Experiential
THE STUDY
as well as from the
personal growth and development aspect. Meanwhile, nurse educators and students are caught up with the problem of how they define and make sense of experiential learning in curriculum planning, classroom teaching.
in clinical practice
and in
learning
what they would count as ‘experiential methods’.
Again, sometimes
this was in
response to a direct request by the researcher for examples of experiential learning methods. At other times, the tutors offered examples to illuminate what they were discussing or as a means of describing their practice.
NUKSE EI)C(:.ATION
DEFINITIONS LEARNING Very often,
the first attempts
at defining
experiential
learning)
from experience . . .’ ‘I look upon (experiential iencing things .’ Such more
definitions detailed
were
account
often learning.
however,
there
clearly
verbalising
definitions:
the
noted,
by a
Sometimes, in
activity can be non-de-
happened
without
tial level
. . prediscussion
can be turned
I
to an experien-
here,
appears
to have been that may
may point to the idea that we do not
always work with ‘definitions’
in our everyday
lives. If we were to ask the person in the street to define ‘music’, it is probable
that he would have
difficulty in doing so, though most people ‘know’ what music is. Indeed,
the person
define
offering
through
may try to examples
of
‘pieces of music’. So, later on, we will note that of the nurse
examples finding
were
able to offer
learning
methods
as
of what they were talking about, whilst formal
definition
There
may
people
to define
supported defining
tutors
of experiential
examples
of the topic difficult.
be something terms,
by some experiential
‘I think it is difficult
1982;
Knowles
has considerable
choice over
Other writers, Ilotably those from the humanistic school
emphasise
the accent
subjective
experience.
We will see, below, that
the humanist
influence
on personal.
has apparently
been felt
defining
artificial
formally.
of the tutors’
in asking
This
idea is
difficulty
and others
it, others,
learn-
had difficulty
in
still, used all encompassing
definitions: ‘I think any activity could be experiential
have been clear to him. On the other hand, the
many
(Keeton
what he or she does or what he or she learns.
‘1 suppose
to put into words something
music
writers
may vary
ways. As we
Whilst some tutors defined experiential
.’
educator,
example
some
ing tautologically
and then you can discuss what has
think anything
loosely and its definition
1978) use the term to cover a range of activities in
educator
problems
may have been
from author to author in important
in the sense that people allow things
to happen
in definition
by some nurse tutors.
‘To me, experiential
The
often defined
as exper-
followed
of how
were
difficulty
which the learner
experiential
struggling
This
things
fuelled by another factor - as we have noted in the literature, the term ‘experiential learning’ is
is learning
learning)
perceived
scriptive
made
proved tautolo-
of this are as follows:
(experiential
of it but I always look on
it as actually doing things, experiencing
an educator
learning
gical. Clear examples ‘I think
of a precise definition
OF EXPERIENTIAL
31
I‘OI)A\
in
learning: to define and I would say
that it is concerned with learning that occurs at the present time, in the here and now, as they say . .’
‘I think it is very difficult to define. I can’t think
involve anything The
problem
approach
with such
an all-encompassing
is that it leaves open the question
experiential
learning
it becomes
then
useful to have such a
superfluous.
On the other
it was clear that even those people
described terms
experiential
had
discussed
in
learning
mind
learning
sorts of things.
when
they
in as much
and contrast
Again,
who
in such broad
something
experiential
they went on to compare other
as to
at all. If
can involve ‘anything’
it may not be particularly hand,
could
.’
whether or not the term means anything
term -
.’
using the term esperiential
as
it with
it is possible
that
asking people to define terms in a fairly formal way is problematic. For some, the accent in defining learning
was on a time factor.
time dimension ‘Learning
experiential
Examples
of this
include:
about things by doing it and also by
learning from the past. Ploughing through your previous experience and reflecting on that and then using what you can get from it to go forward’.
32
NURSE EDUCATION
Although ing forward seems
TODAY
this respondent’s
to be suggesting
from past experience experiential
a pattern
learning
cycle,
future.
he
on learning in Kolb’s
discussed
earlier.
aspect of learning
of gleaning
guidelines
This idea of learning it to the present
from
respondent
for the
from the past and
is echoed
by another
as present and another
from past experience
as well
who said: it’s learning
at the present
from experiencing time. Or maybe even
however,
a theory of how a person something
notion
present
did not dwell upon
may learn from exper-
at the present
of forward
movement
again. Sometimes,
definitely
time, though in time
is
the accent was more
on the present.
‘It (experiential
learning)
has to be here and
‘I would say that it is concerned
with learning
that occurs at the present time, in the here and now, as they say’.
in the humanistic
the topic of learning. as it does,
emphasises
Humanistic from
as a means
therapy
literature
on
psychology,
existentialism,
to them of
can only take
if we are fully aware of
To ‘live in the past’ is to act with
(Satre 1955) ‘bad faith’ (or to deny one’s
full responsibility
for choosing
and deciding
one’s self). To live in the future always anticipating
something
to be accurate.
personal
behind
else) is, again, less of the future
For
is
the existentialist,
then, the ‘place to live’ is the present. The
tutors who discussed
experiential
learn-
ing in terms of ‘the here and now’ appear
to be
supporting
time
this notion
idea.
This
and educating
is congruent
1985) concept amongst
of living in present with
of andragogy,
with such an
Knowles
(1978,
or the theory and
of adults. Knowles argues,
other things, that adults cannot afford
to undertake
‘deferred
by way of contrast,
learning’.
that children
He suggests, often
have to
learn things that will not be of immediate which will not have immediate Adults,
because
of their
use or
application.
He
is essential.
appreciation
of the
passing of time, usually choose not to engage
in
learning
things that they will not use until later.
Instead,
they prefer to learn things that they will
be able to use and which apply to their present, This
life. practicial
aspect
present time experience
of learning is developed
through by another
of the tutors: ‘So
for
me
(experiential
development,
nurses
in wards for experience:
aspect
of nursing
1988; can be
spelt out as follows. All that we have ‘exists’in
the
like the clinical
learning)
things
this position
for
(in the sense of
in the here and
or even as a way of living (Rowan
Shaffer 1978). The argument
Deurzen-Smith
often
the need for people to pay attention
to what is happening now
the present. Sartrian
everyday
This accent on the here and now, on present
drawing
place with any certainty
van
making
suggests that, for adults, applicability
now . . . for me . . .’
time, is reflected
1955;
then such decision
practice of education
This respondent,
the
capacity to choose and decide
(Satre
and linking teaching
in the future’.
iencing
inherent
himself
unlikely
experience’.
‘So I suppose something
for
than ideal as such predication
who said that:
’. . . It’s learning
person’s 1988),
is the ability to reflect on that experi-
ence as a means relating
on mov-
argued,
which is echoed
For Kolb, an important experience
insistence
is not all that clearly
placement
meant
of student the practical
that they get in the ward
placements, because they were doing things from which they were learning from. But I think
the
notion
just
experiential the
practical
learning
extends
occur. Thus the only time that we can be fairly sure about is our existence in the present. For the humanistic therapist and educator, the accent on
one experiences: a) practically, from the point of doing things or b) it is at a psychic level where in conversation with other people, or in con-
the present is a crucial one. Given that existentialism as a personal philosophy accents the
tact with other people, relationships with other people - working experience also comes into
things.
beyond
of
present. The past is just that (and likely to be remembered inaccurately). The future has yet to
I think it also involves
“doing”
anything
that
NLiKSE EDL’(:A-I‘ION
it. So, if you like, it is a question of learning from those things which we all do’. Here, the respondent seems to emphasise the practical, utility value of experiential learning as a tool for teaching and learning nursing. He also seems to be hinting at a more personal and interpersonal aspect. This more personal dimension is made more explicit by other tutors: ‘(experiential learning is) . . Putting someone in a situation that they may not have been in before so that they can experience what it feels like’. ‘It is that form of learning in which students take an active part, learning from their own experience’. ’ (experiential learning is) . . . a means of gaining an awareness of what may be happening or maybe gaining certain values from an experience which is purposeful, such as what it is that you might be doing with another individual, such as an interactive process’. These tutors appear to be alluding to the idea that experiential learning may be a more personal form of learning than may be the case with other sorts of learning. Sometimes this comparison and contrast with more ‘traditional’ forms of learning was made more explicit: ‘I see experiential learning as having less cognitive input, less cognitive assessment and more input from the people who are involved’. ‘I think that there are differences between more traditional ways of doing things and experiential learning. With experiential learning, there is something that can happen and you make use of it. And for me it is more like doing therapy than teaching, because it allows me to utilise what they (the students) bring as people into the situation and you can not pre-plan that’. Here we see the accent on personal experience and on modifying teaching and learning methods according to the merging needs of the students. Again, such an approach to learning and teaching may be traced to the humanistic school of psychology and to the ‘Romantic’
L‘ODAY
33
school of curriculum planning (Lawton 1973). Lawton contrasts the Romantic school of curriculum planners with the Classical school. The Romantic school was characterised bv the advocacy of student-centred learning. The student centred approach emphasises negotiation with learners of learning objectives and evaluation techniques and also negotiation of learning and teaching methods. In this school, learning is seen to be the key issue as opposed to teaching being the key issue in the Classical school. The writers that are associated with the Romantic school often blur the distinction between learning and therapy. Carl Rogers, for example writes of both concepts in each of his books on the psychotherapeutic process (Rogers 1952, 1967, 1983). John Heron also makes no distinction between the two concepts, ar-guing, instead, that all psychotherapy is a form of learning and thus learning techniques can embrace psychotherapeutic techniques (Heron 1989a). The nurse educator cited above seems also to be blurring the distinction when he suggests that: for me it is more like doing therapy than ’ teaching, because it allows me to utilise what they (the students) bring as people into the situation and you cannot pre-plan that’. Two assumptions appear to be being made here. First that teaching is rather like doing therapy and that you cannot pre-plan what happens in learning (and, by implication, in therapy). This style of carrying out therapy, of not pre-planning the aims or outcomes of therapy is very much in line with the humanistic approach to psychotherapy (Perls 1973; Rowan 1988). These humanistic therapists. borrowing from the existential concepts discussed above, work from the premise that people are dynamic and ever changing. Thus, given the difficulty of pinning down human experience in any way, the focus of therapy shifts from session to session. The respondent, above, appears to be applying such a process to learning and to nurse education. All of this can be contrasted with Lawton’s ( 1973) Classical school of curriculum planning. In the Classical school, the locus of power in
34
NURSEEDUCATION1‘ODAY
planning
and
methods
executing
and
a curriculum
evaluation
with the teacher.
The
reason
cites Peters
prime examples) external
(1972)
remains
behind
this is an
developers
(and
and Hirst (1972)
as
would argue that knowledge
is
to the one who does the knowing.
is to say that knowledge independently
remains
is ‘objective’
of the knower.
trivial example, that, under
the simple
normal
true,
-
Thus,
That
it ‘exists’ by way of
mathematical
circumstances
regardless
‘educating’
of
truth
2 + 2 = 4,
the
person
who
with
this
affective
with the passing on of a whole range of
‘truths’.
This can be done in a relatively
imper-
sonal way. here, is one who helps to induce
into ‘ways of knowing’
Education
is concerned
ways of knowing literature
(Peters
in the
It would appear that the
Classical tutors make a clear distinction education
1972).
with this passing on of
and is never compared
with therapy. and therapy
between
‘In a nutshell,
The
approach
approach,
then,
noted above, the Romantic to encourage
one. As we
approach,
as it does from existentialism logy, tends
is a totally
to the Romantic
Arguably,
side of the individual
of view that
knowledge
is ‘relative’ and that what we know is
inextricably
bound up with who we are and how
and
this focus on the emotional would
curriculum
aspects
be an anathema planners
involvement
to the
who would
as a potential
hazard
see in
that it would tend to mitigate against rationality. The Romatic curriculum people
to explore
cational
planners
process,
emotions arguing
would, on the
interested
in helping
as part of the eduthat any attempt
split the person into a ‘cognitive’ element ‘emotional’
element
In summary,
is necessarily
had difficulty
‘experiential
learning’
it tended
or
learning’
false. in defining
and
a
number
in the here
from past or present
through
in terms
of
of the
Those who could define
to talk in terms of learning
and now, learning
to
and an
it may be noted that a number
the respondents
ence
and pheonomenoa point
way of attaining
I would say it is more of a focus
of the person
ence, learning
borrowing
it is, it has been
. .’
defined it tautologically.
Classical
is
their personality’.
term
in ways that Romantic
tutors do not. different
objective
education
quotations:
other hand, be particularly
The educator, learners
affective
as an effective
on the emotional
emotional
to a large
of
‘For me, as I said before,
planner, degree
domain
by the following
documented
Classical
is concerned
aspects of the person.
some of the nurse tutors were concerned
knows it to be true. For the Classical curriculum then, education
the emotional
That
illustrated
epistemological one. The Classical curriculum Lawton
(aims,
procedures)
direct,
experi-
practical
it’s involving
experi‘personal
of some sort.
we view things. Now, whilst this does not seem to be very apparently
the case if we consider
2 = 4 argument,
above,
apparent
the 2 +
it may become
when we turn to the domain
more
beliefs
possible
that both types of education
have their place: appropriate for information
and
and values. It may be
that the classical approach is the passing on of ‘factual’ the
Romantic
approach
is
appropriate for what Heron (ly calls the ‘education of the effect’, for here, too, we see a divergence of thinking Romantic tutors.
between
LEARNING
of feel-
ings, perceptions, to argue
EXPERIENTIAL METHODS
Classical
and
Classical education is more concerned with the domain of knowledge, whilst Romantic education is often concerned with exploring and
If the nurse tutors sometimes
found it difficult to
define experiential learning, they had less difficulty in citing examples of what they would call ‘experiential learning methods’. Examples of experiential learning methods could be divided into two groups: 1) experiential learning
in the
activities nursing.
which nurse tutors use in schools of The respondents talked more of the
clinical
setting
and
2) those
second category than of the first. In the ‘clinical setting’ category, respondents talked of how they worked
some in the
clinical setting, alongside of encouraging
the students as a means
and teaching
would be an example ing method.
them:
’ * We work with them on the wards quite a lot and you can see then whether they have picked up what you would have expected
them
of an experiential
(To the interviewer:)
mean in a formal
learning
methods
YOU
context?’
The bridge between particular iential learning
learn-
Or do
tvpes of exper-
used in the school
of
to have picked up and learned what you would
nursing
have expected
experiential
learning
methods
\vas made
experiential
learning
methods
thar simulated
educator
described
them to have learned
iential learning
in exper-
situations’.
This respondent
appears to be alluding to a set
of learning objectives she has in relation
or criteria for learning
to the student
one of the purposes
of working with learners
the ward is to ascertain
the degree
those criteria.
Whether
on
to which they
have or have not met those objectives criteria
that
nurse and that
or satisfied
or not those objectives
where made explicit
and discussed
or
with
the learners was not pursued by the respondent. Another respondent continued the theme of working example
in
the
clinical
setting
of an experiential
‘another
an
no mention
is made whether
setting
Another
with the nurses
educator
between
made
explicit
experiential
as working
in the clinical
learning
methods
in the
learning setting
and
as methods
that
are used in the school of nursing: ‘I see experiential
learning
situation -
the classroom formal’,
the
experience
process
tone of
uses the word ‘stick’ to of
helping
a nurse
the process of being a patient.
use of language
in this way is thrown
respondent
to
This
into relief
who suggested
that:
methods
as means
experience
in the classroom’.
setting
presumably
more informal
learning
clinical setting.
The
learning.
Another
distinction modes:
between
is perceived
in contrast
as
to the
that takes place in the
reference
allusion to the tutor’s differences between
could also be an
own perceptions classroom and
respondent
but
also
of the clinical made
the formal and the informal
‘In the wards and taking temperatures.
That
their
something:
with those around
them, how hard the seat is,
how hot the room is
_’
It is always difficult to determine people
which
what
beliefs
but it is interesting
say reflects
Darticular
L
the degree to attitudes
to ponder
degree to which the use of language of
not just your
. relationships
environmenl
a
ing,
through
another
simulation
and
on the
in this way is
attitudes
students, learning and education. ‘rhe ‘bridging“method of experiential
and either within the work situation or within a
‘more
describe
indicative
of helping people to learn through
Here,
The educator
voice
work in rhe clinical
more formal
that’.
What may be noted, here, is a certain response.
who are experiencing
of a patient’.
sees it as part of her role
experiential
them in bed and let them experience
‘My feeling is that you must not forget the fact
In this example,
methods
‘If you want a nurse to know what it feels like to be a patient, you stick them on J ward and stick
that those pec>ple sat in front oI’~ou are people
or not the educator
distinction
such
graphically-:
by another
method:
One
via
method is when
learning
taking the temperature
question.
settings.
practices
and ‘clinical’ types of-
work on the ward and actually
experiential
the students
as being
learning
clinical
(such as role-play)
towards learn-
is also described
by
We. for example,
get
respondent:
‘We do some practicals. some of them
to act as patients
and nurses.
And the patients we give various problems
to,
like telling them they are blind or telling them they are paralysed down one side. And the other students who are “being nurses” have to feed them and then we talk about what it felt like to actually be fed when you aren’t capable of doing
thih yourself
and
bow the people
acting as nurses treat people who are acting as patients’.
36
NURSE EDUCATION
TODAY
Here, various elements of Kolb’s (1984) experiential learning
cycle may be noted in practice.
First, the respondent exnerience 1
sets up a simulated clinical
and asks students
Then they act out a particular wards
all the ‘actors’
gather
to adovt
experienci.
together
roles. After-
to reflect
the process and draw out new learning 1
on
from that
reflection. A more dramatic experience another
was
form of simulation mentioned,
respondent,
in
of patient
passing,
by
as:
‘Getting nurses to spend one night in a hospital bed’. Such
simulations
well documented educational 1990;
practices
Schafer
references,
of patient in the
(Dowd
& Morgan
however,
experience
literature 1983;
1980).
and evaluation
Langford
refer to descriptive
simulations
are nurse
All of these
that offer a ‘how to do it’ approach appears
on
papers
to setting up
of this sort. There
to be no published studies, to date, that
empirically
evaluate
this method
of teaching
nurses.
CONCLUSION These,
then,
are
some
tutors’
definitions
aspects of the field of experiential nurse education.
of
learning
in
Clearly, it is not appropriate
to
extrapolate
from such findings but they do serve
to highlight
some of the difficulties in the field.
Whilst we need to seek consensus
of opinion on
how to define words, it does seem to be important that we are all clear how words are being used when we use them. What emerged later in this
study
was
of
importance
here.
When
students were interviewed, they tended to define experiential learning much more in terms of clinical work than did the tutors. This difference of perception
highlights,
perhaps,
the need for
tutors and students to work closely together in discussing educational approaches to teaching and
learning
nursing.
References Berg B L 1989 Qualitative research methods for the social science. Allvn and Bacon. New York Burnard P, 1990a Learning from’experience: nurse tutors’ and student nursgs’ percepiions of experiential learning. PhD Thesis, University of Wales College of Medicine, Cardiff Burnard P 1990b Learning human skills: an experiential guide for nirses. Heinemann, Oxford Dowd C 1983 Learning through experience. Nursing Times 7th .,Iulv:I 50-52 Freire P 1972 Pedagogy of the oppressed. Penguin, Harmondsworth Glaser B G, Strauss A L 1967 The discovery of grounded theory. Aldine, New York Heron J 1983 Education of the affect. Human Potential Research Project, University of Surrey, Guildford Hirst P H 1972 Liberal education and the nature of knowledge. In: Philosophical analysis and education Archambault R D (ed) Routledge and Kegan Paul, London Keeton M et al 1976 Experiential learning. Jossey Bass, San Francisco Knowles M S 1978 The adult learner: a neglected species, 2nd ed. Gulf, Texas Knowles M S et al 1984 Andragogy in action: applying modern principles of adult learning. Jossey Bass, San Francisco Kolb D 1984 Experiential learning. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New York Langford M J 1990 The moot court in teaching bioethics. Nurse Education Today 10, 1: 24-30 Lawton D 1973 Social change, educational theory and curriculum planning. Hodder and Stoughton, London Perls F 1973 The gestalt approach and evewitness to therapy. Sciencgand Behaviour Books, Palo Alto, California Peters R S 1972 Education as initiation. In: Philosophical analysis and education, Archambault R D (ed). Routledge and Kegan Paul, London Rogers C R 1952 Client-centred therapy. Constable, London Rogers C R 1967 On becoming a person. Constable, I.ondon Rogers C R 1983 Freedom to learn for the eighties. Merrill, Columbus, Ohio. Rowan J 1988 Ordinary ecstasy: humanistic psychology in action, 2nd ed. Routledge, London Satre J-P 1955 Being and nothingness. Philosophical Library, New York Schafer B P, Morgan M K 1980 An experiential learning laboratory: a new dimension in teaching mental health skills. Issues in Mental Health Nursing 2.3: 47-57 Shaffer J B P 1978 Humanistic psychology. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey van Deurzen-Smith E 1988 Esixtential counselling in
practice. Sage, London Weil S W, McGill I 1989 Making sense of experiential learning: diversity in theory and practice. Open University
Press, Milton
Keynes.
learning: nurse tutors’
Philip Burnard
Experiential learning and experiential learning methods have been widely discussed in the nursing education literature. This paper offers some of the findings from a study into nurse tutors’ and student nurses’ perceptions of experiential learning. In the part of the study described here, 12 nurse tutors were interviewed in depth about the way that they defined experiential learning and experiential learning methods. In this paper, those definitions are compared and contrasted with definitions in the literature and implications for nurse education are identified.
INTRODUCTION Experiential methods
learning
and experiential
have been advocated
various aspects of nursing. on
the
topic
different
define
a process
from
that such life experience for
when
considering
formal
educational
writers,
on the other
iential
learning
learning
learning
should people
be accounted for
entry Many
into other
hand, have viewed expera humanistic
perspective
and have offered
the view that human
ence
to
is central
as
life and suggested
programmes.
from
in
and associates
saw experiential
of learning
of
A variety of writers
experiential
sorts of ways. Keeton
( 1988) for example,
learning
in the teaching
the
process
of
experilearning
(Burnard 1990b; Heron 1989; Rowan 1988). Widening the debate about experiential learning further,
Weil and McGill (1989)
argued
that
it was useful to consider
the theory and practice
of experiential
by reference
to a meta-
phor of four villages. They suggested
that exper-
iential learning
theorists
appeared
to hold four
distinct points of view (or inhabit four different villages). They went on to suggest that the people in each unaware They
of those
four
villages
of the existence
quote
(f’rom
an
tended
to be
of the other unknown
three.
source)
as
follows: ‘A person not
who knows only his own village will
understand
familiar
it; only
in the
elsewhere
light
by seeing
of what
will we be enabled
what
is the
is
norm
to think afresh
about what we know too well’. (Weil 8r McGill 1989, p 4) Weil and Mcgill suggested well not to become what experiential The four follows:
Philip Burnard PhD MSc MN RGN DipN Cert Ed RNT Director of Postgraduate Nursing Studies, University of Wales College of Medicine, Heath Park, Cardiff, Wales (Requests for offprints to PB) Manuscript accepted 3 July 1991
learning
learning
‘villages’
that we would do
too narrow that
minded
about
is and what it is not. they
describe
are
as
Village one The assessment and accreditation of ‘prior’ experiential learning. Essentially, the people in
30
NURSE EDUCATION
TODAY
this village view experiential from
life experience
‘totted
learning
and learning
up’ to enable
as learning that can be
adults to gain exemption
from certain degree and diploma courses. UK for example, degrees degree
nurses who have not got ‘first’
can sometimes courses
In the
gain entrance
to master’s
by virtue of their previous
sonal and professional
per-
experience.
continuing theory
and change
education.
in higher and
In this village, experien-
is often tied closely to adult learning
and the notion
centred
of nurse tutors’ and student nurses’ perceptions of experiential
approaches
of developing
to teaching
learner-
and social change.
village, experiential concerned this sense,
learning
with helping
circumstances
In this
is a radical process
people
to change
in which they find themselves. it is more
‘problem-posing’ described
of those interviews were analysed
Strauss
1967). Detailed checks for the validity of
of grounded
akin
approach
elsewhere
to Freire’s to
in this chapter
the In
(1972)
education,
were instituted
A number to check
recheck
that
researcher
asked
the categories
faithfully
generated
represented
report
offers
that
by the
their percep-
only part of the analysis:
which
definitions
relates
to definitions.
are of experiential
learning,
itself and of the concept of ‘experiential methods’.
It was felt to be important
identified
how nurse educators’
about experiential ceeding
of and
1989).
on
learning
to identify
learning that it be
thought
and felt
methods before how
they
used
prosuch
methods.
In order tutors
to begin
understood
learning, of defining
cesses and the people
how they defined
of this village are often
with the humanistic
school of psychol-
that it is this ‘village’ that has
influenced
the development
of
experiential learning in nurse education. Weil and McGill’s argument, then, is that we can learn much from all approaches
offered
their methods
terms. In the first section, it is noted Such
the expression definitions
‘experiential
were
by the tutors as a response
such as ‘how would learning?’ At other emerged
how nurse
of experiential
sometimes to a question
you define experiential times, the definition
during the interview
as a means of the
tial learning - from the political aspect of it, from
educator making clear how he used that term. In the second section, the nurse tutors
the adult learning
described
approach,
to experien-
learning’.
to understand the concept
it was useful to explore
Personal growth and development. Here, the emphasis is on the individual’s learning pro-
most strongly
at various stages in
tutors
in the study were
8c
DEFINING THE FIELD
Village four
ogy, It is arguable
(Glasser
and has a
‘political’ aspect to it.
aligned
theory
the analysis phase of the project.
Those
learning
Part
style
This
Village three
1990a).
interviewing
in the
tions (Berg
and learning.
(Burnard
of 12 nurse tutors from various parts of the UK.
specifically
Experiential
learning
of the study involved the in-depth
the findings
learning
tial learning
This paper offers some of the findings of a study
Transcriptions
Village two Experiential
THE STUDY
as well as from the
personal growth and development aspect. Meanwhile, nurse educators and students are caught up with the problem of how they define and make sense of experiential learning in curriculum planning, classroom teaching.
in clinical practice
and in
learning
what they would count as ‘experiential methods’.
Again, sometimes
this was in
response to a direct request by the researcher for examples of experiential learning methods. At other times, the tutors offered examples to illuminate what they were discussing or as a means of describing their practice.
NUKSE EI)C(:.ATION
DEFINITIONS LEARNING Very often,
the first attempts
at defining
experiential
learning)
from experience . . .’ ‘I look upon (experiential iencing things .’ Such more
definitions detailed
were
account
often learning.
however,
there
clearly
verbalising
definitions:
the
noted,
by a
Sometimes, in
activity can be non-de-
happened
without
tial level
. . prediscussion
can be turned
I
to an experien-
here,
appears
to have been that may
may point to the idea that we do not
always work with ‘definitions’
in our everyday
lives. If we were to ask the person in the street to define ‘music’, it is probable
that he would have
difficulty in doing so, though most people ‘know’ what music is. Indeed,
the person
define
offering
through
may try to examples
of
‘pieces of music’. So, later on, we will note that of the nurse
examples finding
were
able to offer
learning
methods
as
of what they were talking about, whilst formal
definition
There
may
people
to define
supported defining
tutors
of experiential
examples
of the topic difficult.
be something terms,
by some experiential
‘I think it is difficult
1982;
Knowles
has considerable
choice over
Other writers, Ilotably those from the humanistic school
emphasise
the accent
subjective
experience.
We will see, below, that
the humanist
influence
on personal.
has apparently
been felt
defining
artificial
formally.
of the tutors’
in asking
This
idea is
difficulty
and others
it, others,
learn-
had difficulty
in
still, used all encompassing
definitions: ‘I think any activity could be experiential
have been clear to him. On the other hand, the
many
(Keeton
what he or she does or what he or she learns.
‘1 suppose
to put into words something
music
writers
may vary
ways. As we
Whilst some tutors defined experiential
.’
educator,
example
some
ing tautologically
and then you can discuss what has
think anything
loosely and its definition
1978) use the term to cover a range of activities in
educator
problems
may have been
from author to author in important
in the sense that people allow things
to happen
in definition
by some nurse tutors.
‘To me, experiential
The
often defined
as exper-
followed
of how
were
difficulty
which the learner
experiential
struggling
This
things
fuelled by another factor - as we have noted in the literature, the term ‘experiential learning’ is
is learning
learning)
perceived
scriptive
made
proved tautolo-
of this are as follows:
(experiential
of it but I always look on
it as actually doing things, experiencing
an educator
learning
gical. Clear examples ‘I think
of a precise definition
OF EXPERIENTIAL
31
I‘OI)A\
in
learning: to define and I would say
that it is concerned with learning that occurs at the present time, in the here and now, as they say . .’
‘I think it is very difficult to define. I can’t think
involve anything The
problem
approach
with such
an all-encompassing
is that it leaves open the question
experiential
learning
it becomes
then
useful to have such a
superfluous.
On the other
it was clear that even those people
described terms
experiential
had
discussed
in
learning
mind
learning
sorts of things.
when
they
in as much
and contrast
Again,
who
in such broad
something
experiential
they went on to compare other
as to
at all. If
can involve ‘anything’
it may not be particularly hand,
could
.’
whether or not the term means anything
term -
.’
using the term esperiential
as
it with
it is possible
that
asking people to define terms in a fairly formal way is problematic. For some, the accent in defining learning
was on a time factor.
time dimension ‘Learning
experiential
Examples
of this
include:
about things by doing it and also by
learning from the past. Ploughing through your previous experience and reflecting on that and then using what you can get from it to go forward’.
32
NURSE EDUCATION
Although ing forward seems
TODAY
this respondent’s
to be suggesting
from past experience experiential
a pattern
learning
cycle,
future.
he
on learning in Kolb’s
discussed
earlier.
aspect of learning
of gleaning
guidelines
This idea of learning it to the present
from
respondent
for the
from the past and
is echoed
by another
as present and another
from past experience
as well
who said: it’s learning
at the present
from experiencing time. Or maybe even
however,
a theory of how a person something
notion
present
did not dwell upon
may learn from exper-
at the present
of forward
movement
again. Sometimes,
definitely
time, though in time
is
the accent was more
on the present.
‘It (experiential
learning)
has to be here and
‘I would say that it is concerned
with learning
that occurs at the present time, in the here and now, as they say’.
in the humanistic
the topic of learning. as it does,
emphasises
Humanistic from
as a means
therapy
literature
on
psychology,
existentialism,
to them of
can only take
if we are fully aware of
To ‘live in the past’ is to act with
(Satre 1955) ‘bad faith’ (or to deny one’s
full responsibility
for choosing
and deciding
one’s self). To live in the future always anticipating
something
to be accurate.
personal
behind
else) is, again, less of the future
For
is
the existentialist,
then, the ‘place to live’ is the present. The
tutors who discussed
experiential
learn-
ing in terms of ‘the here and now’ appear
to be
supporting
time
this notion
idea.
This
and educating
is congruent
1985) concept amongst
of living in present with
of andragogy,
with such an
Knowles
(1978,
or the theory and
of adults. Knowles argues,
other things, that adults cannot afford
to undertake
‘deferred
by way of contrast,
learning’.
that children
He suggests, often
have to
learn things that will not be of immediate which will not have immediate Adults,
because
of their
use or
application.
He
is essential.
appreciation
of the
passing of time, usually choose not to engage
in
learning
things that they will not use until later.
Instead,
they prefer to learn things that they will
be able to use and which apply to their present, This
life. practicial
aspect
present time experience
of learning is developed
through by another
of the tutors: ‘So
for
me
(experiential
development,
nurses
in wards for experience:
aspect
of nursing
1988; can be
spelt out as follows. All that we have ‘exists’in
the
like the clinical
learning)
things
this position
for
(in the sense of
in the here and
or even as a way of living (Rowan
Shaffer 1978). The argument
Deurzen-Smith
often
the need for people to pay attention
to what is happening now
the present. Sartrian
everyday
This accent on the here and now, on present
drawing
place with any certainty
van
making
suggests that, for adults, applicability
now . . . for me . . .’
time, is reflected
1955;
then such decision
practice of education
This respondent,
the
capacity to choose and decide
(Satre
and linking teaching
in the future’.
iencing
inherent
himself
unlikely
experience’.
‘So I suppose something
for
than ideal as such predication
who said that:
’. . . It’s learning
person’s 1988),
is the ability to reflect on that experi-
ence as a means relating
on mov-
argued,
which is echoed
For Kolb, an important experience
insistence
is not all that clearly
placement
meant
of student the practical
that they get in the ward
placements, because they were doing things from which they were learning from. But I think
the
notion
just
experiential the
practical
learning
extends
occur. Thus the only time that we can be fairly sure about is our existence in the present. For the humanistic therapist and educator, the accent on
one experiences: a) practically, from the point of doing things or b) it is at a psychic level where in conversation with other people, or in con-
the present is a crucial one. Given that existentialism as a personal philosophy accents the
tact with other people, relationships with other people - working experience also comes into
things.
beyond
of
present. The past is just that (and likely to be remembered inaccurately). The future has yet to
I think it also involves
“doing”
anything
that
NLiKSE EDL’(:A-I‘ION
it. So, if you like, it is a question of learning from those things which we all do’. Here, the respondent seems to emphasise the practical, utility value of experiential learning as a tool for teaching and learning nursing. He also seems to be hinting at a more personal and interpersonal aspect. This more personal dimension is made more explicit by other tutors: ‘(experiential learning is) . . Putting someone in a situation that they may not have been in before so that they can experience what it feels like’. ‘It is that form of learning in which students take an active part, learning from their own experience’. ’ (experiential learning is) . . . a means of gaining an awareness of what may be happening or maybe gaining certain values from an experience which is purposeful, such as what it is that you might be doing with another individual, such as an interactive process’. These tutors appear to be alluding to the idea that experiential learning may be a more personal form of learning than may be the case with other sorts of learning. Sometimes this comparison and contrast with more ‘traditional’ forms of learning was made more explicit: ‘I see experiential learning as having less cognitive input, less cognitive assessment and more input from the people who are involved’. ‘I think that there are differences between more traditional ways of doing things and experiential learning. With experiential learning, there is something that can happen and you make use of it. And for me it is more like doing therapy than teaching, because it allows me to utilise what they (the students) bring as people into the situation and you can not pre-plan that’. Here we see the accent on personal experience and on modifying teaching and learning methods according to the merging needs of the students. Again, such an approach to learning and teaching may be traced to the humanistic school of psychology and to the ‘Romantic’
L‘ODAY
33
school of curriculum planning (Lawton 1973). Lawton contrasts the Romantic school of curriculum planners with the Classical school. The Romantic school was characterised bv the advocacy of student-centred learning. The student centred approach emphasises negotiation with learners of learning objectives and evaluation techniques and also negotiation of learning and teaching methods. In this school, learning is seen to be the key issue as opposed to teaching being the key issue in the Classical school. The writers that are associated with the Romantic school often blur the distinction between learning and therapy. Carl Rogers, for example writes of both concepts in each of his books on the psychotherapeutic process (Rogers 1952, 1967, 1983). John Heron also makes no distinction between the two concepts, ar-guing, instead, that all psychotherapy is a form of learning and thus learning techniques can embrace psychotherapeutic techniques (Heron 1989a). The nurse educator cited above seems also to be blurring the distinction when he suggests that: for me it is more like doing therapy than ’ teaching, because it allows me to utilise what they (the students) bring as people into the situation and you cannot pre-plan that’. Two assumptions appear to be being made here. First that teaching is rather like doing therapy and that you cannot pre-plan what happens in learning (and, by implication, in therapy). This style of carrying out therapy, of not pre-planning the aims or outcomes of therapy is very much in line with the humanistic approach to psychotherapy (Perls 1973; Rowan 1988). These humanistic therapists. borrowing from the existential concepts discussed above, work from the premise that people are dynamic and ever changing. Thus, given the difficulty of pinning down human experience in any way, the focus of therapy shifts from session to session. The respondent, above, appears to be applying such a process to learning and to nurse education. All of this can be contrasted with Lawton’s ( 1973) Classical school of curriculum planning. In the Classical school, the locus of power in
34
NURSEEDUCATION1‘ODAY
planning
and
methods
executing
and
a curriculum
evaluation
with the teacher.
The
reason
cites Peters
prime examples) external
(1972)
remains
behind
this is an
developers
(and
and Hirst (1972)
as
would argue that knowledge
is
to the one who does the knowing.
is to say that knowledge independently
remains
is ‘objective’
of the knower.
trivial example, that, under
the simple
normal
true,
-
Thus,
That
it ‘exists’ by way of
mathematical
circumstances
regardless
‘educating’
of
truth
2 + 2 = 4,
the
person
who
with
this
affective
with the passing on of a whole range of
‘truths’.
This can be done in a relatively
imper-
sonal way. here, is one who helps to induce
into ‘ways of knowing’
Education
is concerned
ways of knowing literature
(Peters
in the
It would appear that the
Classical tutors make a clear distinction education
1972).
with this passing on of
and is never compared
with therapy. and therapy
between
‘In a nutshell,
The
approach
approach,
then,
noted above, the Romantic to encourage
one. As we
approach,
as it does from existentialism logy, tends
is a totally
to the Romantic
Arguably,
side of the individual
of view that
knowledge
is ‘relative’ and that what we know is
inextricably
bound up with who we are and how
and
this focus on the emotional would
curriculum
aspects
be an anathema planners
involvement
to the
who would
as a potential
hazard
see in
that it would tend to mitigate against rationality. The Romatic curriculum people
to explore
cational
planners
process,
emotions arguing
would, on the
interested
in helping
as part of the eduthat any attempt
split the person into a ‘cognitive’ element ‘emotional’
element
In summary,
is necessarily
had difficulty
‘experiential
learning’
it tended
or
learning’
false. in defining
and
a
number
in the here
from past or present
through
in terms
of
of the
Those who could define
to talk in terms of learning
and now, learning
to
and an
it may be noted that a number
the respondents
ence
and pheonomenoa point
way of attaining
I would say it is more of a focus
of the person
ence, learning
borrowing
it is, it has been
. .’
defined it tautologically.
Classical
is
their personality’.
term
in ways that Romantic
tutors do not. different
objective
education
quotations:
other hand, be particularly
The educator, learners
affective
as an effective
on the emotional
emotional
to a large
of
‘For me, as I said before,
planner, degree
domain
by the following
documented
Classical
is concerned
aspects of the person.
some of the nurse tutors were concerned
knows it to be true. For the Classical curriculum then, education
the emotional
That
illustrated
epistemological one. The Classical curriculum Lawton
(aims,
procedures)
direct,
experi-
practical
it’s involving
experi‘personal
of some sort.
we view things. Now, whilst this does not seem to be very apparently
the case if we consider
2 = 4 argument,
above,
apparent
the 2 +
it may become
when we turn to the domain
more
beliefs
possible
that both types of education
have their place: appropriate for information
and
and values. It may be
that the classical approach is the passing on of ‘factual’ the
Romantic
approach
is
appropriate for what Heron (ly calls the ‘education of the effect’, for here, too, we see a divergence of thinking Romantic tutors.
between
LEARNING
of feel-
ings, perceptions, to argue
EXPERIENTIAL METHODS
Classical
and
Classical education is more concerned with the domain of knowledge, whilst Romantic education is often concerned with exploring and
If the nurse tutors sometimes
found it difficult to
define experiential learning, they had less difficulty in citing examples of what they would call ‘experiential learning methods’. Examples of experiential learning methods could be divided into two groups: 1) experiential learning
in the
activities nursing.
which nurse tutors use in schools of The respondents talked more of the
clinical
setting
and
2) those
second category than of the first. In the ‘clinical setting’ category, respondents talked of how they worked
some in the
clinical setting, alongside of encouraging
the students as a means
and teaching
would be an example ing method.
them:
’ * We work with them on the wards quite a lot and you can see then whether they have picked up what you would have expected
them
of an experiential
(To the interviewer:)
mean in a formal
learning
methods
YOU
context?’
The bridge between particular iential learning
learn-
Or do
tvpes of exper-
used in the school
of
to have picked up and learned what you would
nursing
have expected
experiential
learning
methods
\vas made
experiential
learning
methods
thar simulated
educator
described
them to have learned
iential learning
in exper-
situations’.
This respondent
appears to be alluding to a set
of learning objectives she has in relation
or criteria for learning
to the student
one of the purposes
of working with learners
the ward is to ascertain
the degree
those criteria.
Whether
on
to which they
have or have not met those objectives criteria
that
nurse and that
or satisfied
or not those objectives
where made explicit
and discussed
or
with
the learners was not pursued by the respondent. Another respondent continued the theme of working example
in
the
clinical
setting
of an experiential
‘another
an
no mention
is made whether
setting
Another
with the nurses
educator
between
made
explicit
experiential
as working
in the clinical
learning
methods
in the
learning setting
and
as methods
that
are used in the school of nursing: ‘I see experiential
learning
situation -
the classroom formal’,
the
experience
process
tone of
uses the word ‘stick’ to of
helping
a nurse
the process of being a patient.
use of language
in this way is thrown
respondent
to
This
into relief
who suggested
that:
methods
as means
experience
in the classroom’.
setting
presumably
more informal
learning
clinical setting.
The
learning.
Another
distinction modes:
between
is perceived
in contrast
as
to the
that takes place in the
reference
allusion to the tutor’s differences between
could also be an
own perceptions classroom and
respondent
but
also
of the clinical made
the formal and the informal
‘In the wards and taking temperatures.
That
their
something:
with those around
them, how hard the seat is,
how hot the room is
_’
It is always difficult to determine people
which
what
beliefs
but it is interesting
say reflects
Darticular
L
the degree to attitudes
to ponder
degree to which the use of language of
not just your
. relationships
environmenl
a
ing,
through
another
simulation
and
on the
in this way is
attitudes
students, learning and education. ‘rhe ‘bridging“method of experiential
and either within the work situation or within a
‘more
describe
indicative
of helping people to learn through
Here,
The educator
voice
work in rhe clinical
more formal
that’.
What may be noted, here, is a certain response.
who are experiencing
of a patient’.
sees it as part of her role
experiential
them in bed and let them experience
‘My feeling is that you must not forget the fact
In this example,
methods
‘If you want a nurse to know what it feels like to be a patient, you stick them on J ward and stick
that those pec>ple sat in front oI’~ou are people
or not the educator
distinction
such
graphically-:
by another
method:
One
via
method is when
learning
taking the temperature
question.
settings.
practices
and ‘clinical’ types of-
work on the ward and actually
experiential
the students
as being
learning
clinical
(such as role-play)
towards learn-
is also described
by
We. for example,
get
respondent:
‘We do some practicals. some of them
to act as patients
and nurses.
And the patients we give various problems
to,
like telling them they are blind or telling them they are paralysed down one side. And the other students who are “being nurses” have to feed them and then we talk about what it felt like to actually be fed when you aren’t capable of doing
thih yourself
and
bow the people
acting as nurses treat people who are acting as patients’.
36
NURSE EDUCATION
TODAY
Here, various elements of Kolb’s (1984) experiential learning
cycle may be noted in practice.
First, the respondent exnerience 1
sets up a simulated clinical
and asks students
Then they act out a particular wards
all the ‘actors’
gather
to adovt
experienci.
together
roles. After-
to reflect
the process and draw out new learning 1
on
from that
reflection. A more dramatic experience another
was
form of simulation mentioned,
respondent,
in
of patient
passing,
by
as:
‘Getting nurses to spend one night in a hospital bed’. Such
simulations
well documented educational 1990;
practices
Schafer
references,
of patient in the
(Dowd
& Morgan
however,
experience
literature 1983;
1980).
and evaluation
Langford
refer to descriptive
simulations
are nurse
All of these
that offer a ‘how to do it’ approach appears
on
papers
to setting up
of this sort. There
to be no published studies, to date, that
empirically
evaluate
this method
of teaching
nurses.
CONCLUSION These,
then,
are
some
tutors’
definitions
aspects of the field of experiential nurse education.
of
learning
in
Clearly, it is not appropriate
to
extrapolate
from such findings but they do serve
to highlight
some of the difficulties in the field.
Whilst we need to seek consensus
of opinion on
how to define words, it does seem to be important that we are all clear how words are being used when we use them. What emerged later in this
study
was
of
importance
here.
When
students were interviewed, they tended to define experiential learning much more in terms of clinical work than did the tutors. This difference of perception
highlights,
perhaps,
the need for
tutors and students to work closely together in discussing educational approaches to teaching and
learning
nursing.
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