Credentialing High School Psychology Teachers Kenneth A. Weaver
Emporia State University
The National Standards for High School Psychology Cur ricula (American Psychological Association, 2013b) re
to Study Problems Connected With the Teaching of Psy chology in High Schools and Junior College and continuing to the present with the 1992 formation of Teachers of quire a teacher with considerable psychology content Psychology in Secondary Schools (TOPSS). A second knowledge to teach high school psychology courses effec theme is concern about the variable scientific rigor of the tively. In this study, I examined the initial teaching creden courses (e.g., Carstens & Beck, 1986; Griggs, Jackson, & tial requirements for high school psychology teachers in Meyer, 1989; White, Marcuella, & Oresick, 1979), which the 50 states plus the District of Columbia. Thirty-four has prompted periodic review of both the curriculum and states (the District of Columbia is included as a state) require the social studies credential to teach high school teacher quality. psychology. An analysis of the items on standardized tests Professional development for high school psychology teachers dramatically improved in the 1990s (Weaver, used by states to validate the content knowledge required to 2005). The Psych-News listserv, the AP Psychology exam teach social studies indicates little or no presence of psy chology, a reflection of psychology’s meager presence in ination, the creation of TOPSS (Ernst & Petrossian, 1996), the social studies teacher preparation curricula. Thus, new convention programming for high school teachers (Hen teachers with the social studies teaching credential are not derson, 1994; Weaver, 1996; Weaver & Davidson, 1997), prepared to teach high school psychology according to the and summer institutes funded by the National Science and Arthur National Standards. Approval of The College, Career, and Vining Davis Foundations (Weaver, 2005) provided abundant Civic Life (C3) Framework for Social Studies State Stan opportunities for learning psychological science and instilled dards: Guidance for Enhancing the Rigor of K -12 Civics, an esprit de corps among a cadre of dedicated and visionary Economics, Geography, and History (National Council for high school teachers. The Psychology Partnerships Project the Social Studies, 2013) presents an opportunity to advo (Mathie, 2002) reframed the high school psychology cate for establishing a psychology credential in the 34 teacher as a valued and valuable colleague and reaffirmed states. the high school course as the critically important gateway into the study of psychological science. Keywords: high school psychology, teaching, credentialing The approval of the National Standards for the Teach ing of High School Psychology (APA, 1999) ended the he National Standards for High School Psychology decade, resolving two contentious issues: (a) W hat is the Curricula (American Psychological Association content of high school psychology courses? and (b) What [APA], 2013b) are the foundation for the high preparation is needed for high school psychology teachers? school course, providing teachers a benchmark with which For the first contentious issue, survey researchers through to craft local curricula (Ernst & Petrossian, 1996). Approx out the 20th century (e.g., Abrams & Stanley, 1967; imately 1,000,000 American high school students annually Breland, 1978; Burgum, 1940; Engle, 1952a, 1952b, 1967; complete a psychology course (APA, 2013a), and almost Ragland, 1992; Stone & Watson, 1937) invariably reported 233,000 high school students took the Advanced Placement the competing course content of personal development, (AP) psychology exam in 2013, the sixth highest number mental health, and knowledge of self versus the theories, among the 34 subjects tested (College Board, 2013). Al research findings, and methodologies of psychological sci though a firm count of high school psychology teachers in ence (Kasschau & Wertheimer, 1974, pp. 4 8 -4 9 ). the nation is not available, A PA’s Office of Precollege and The standards, now updated and referred to as the Undergraduate Education has used several methods to es National Standards for High School Psychology Curricula timate a range of 5,942 to 9,214 teachers (E. Leary (APA, 2013b), unequivocally define the course content as Chesnes, personal communication, January 9, 2014). This a blend of the two perspectives, with content standards that study examines the quality of U.S. teachers’ psychology include both scientific knowledge and the application of content knowledge to qualify them to teach the high school psychology courses according to the National Standards. Benjamin (2001) and Keith, Yost Hammer, BlairThis article was published Online First June 9, 2014. I wish to thank Pooja K. Agarwal for helpful comments on drafts of this Broeker, and Ernst (2013) have chronicled the history of article. the high school psychology course from its origins in the Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Ken 19th century (Louttit, 1956; Roback, 1952). One theme neth A. Weaver, Office of the Dean, The Teachers College, Emporia State they identified is the enduring importance of the course to University, 1200 Commercial Street, Emporia, KS 66801. E-mail: [email protected] APA, starting in 1935 with the creation of the Committee
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knowledge needed by high school psychology teachers (Weaver, 2002). Does earning a state’s initial teaching credential require psychology content knowledge sufficient to teach effectively the high school courses based on the National Standards? M e th o d
K e n n e th A . W eaver
that knowledge (e.g., “Explain the concepts of threshold and adaptation,” p. 35; “Apply classical conditioning to everyday life,” p. 36). The National Standards undergird a high school curriculum that emphasizes “a consistent in terplay between actual, real-world application and intellec tual analysis of the principles and concepts involved” (Sprinthall, 1980, p. 342). The second contentious issue was determining the preparation of high school psychology teachers. Although several suggested undergraduate psychology education curricula exist (e.g., Gruber, McEntarffer, & Weaver, 2002; Ragland, 1992; Sprinthall, 1980), the National Standards answered the question: A high school psychology teacher is prepared to teach the courses as defined by the standards and is knowledgeable in psychological science and its application to create relevant learning experiences that stimulate both the intellectual and the psychological growth of adolescents (Sprinthall, 1980, p. 346). As a profession (Gardner & Shulman, 2005; Shulman, 1998), education started establishing criteria for entry into teaching in 1834, when Pennsylvania was the first state to require teacher candidates to pass a test of reading, writing, and arithmetic (Ravitch, 2002). The teacher credential (i.e., certificate or license) attests that the teacher possesses the requisite knowledge in content and pedagogy to teach the content effectively. Each state determines its requirements for credentialing a teacher in a content area to ensure that students have competent teachers (Mitchell, Robinson, Plake, & Knowles, 2001) in a particular discipline. This preparation requires attaining a level of content and peda gogical knowledge expertise by completing a set of college courses that satisfy required coursework or standards set by the state. The National Standards fo r High School Psychology Curricula (APA, 2013b) define the psychology content
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I selected the initial teaching credential for newly gradu ated teachers because it is the norm in contrast to pursuing an alternative route (e.g., post baccalaureate, m aster’s de gree), adding a teaching field to the credential, or transfer ring a credential from another state. From June 2010 through June 20 1 3 ,1 carefully examined the websites of the state agencies charged with teacher credentialing (usually the state departments of education) in all 50 states and the District of Columbia and contacted agency personnel with questions. The Educational Testing Service (ETS) Praxis (www.ets.org/praxis) and Pearson Education National Evaluation Series (http://www.nestest.com/) websites pro vided state-specific information on content knowledge tests required for credentialing teachers. After compiling the data, I asked state agency officials or other professionals with a knowledge of their states’ credentialing (e.g., school district human resource officers, state TOPSS leaders) to either verify or correct my information. All states require candidates to complete an approved teacher preparation curriculum to become credentialed. While the curriculum may differ by institutions (and other providers) and by states, it includes coursework in general education, secondary education (e.g., classroom manage ment, developmental characteristics of secondary stu dents), the content area, pedagogy, and other areas such as integrating technology into teaching and learning. Answering my research question required focusing on the content area knowledge required by each state to teach psychology. States define content area knowledge in mul tiple ways, including specifying courses, specifying a num ber of course credit hours to complete (e.g., 30 semester hours to meet No Child Left Behind guidelines for the Highly Qualified Teacher designation), or developing stan dards and allowing teacher preparation programs in that state to specify the curriculum to meet the standards. For example, Arizona requires any 24 hours of psychology coursework to earn the psychology teaching credential. In contrast, Kansas establishes state standards to become a psychology teacher and requires teacher preparation col leges and universities to submit evidence that their candi dates are meeting the standards; individual institutions de velop the curricula in alignment with the state standards. Both paths to earning the teaching credential are repre sented in the Guidelines fo r Preparing High School Psy
chology Teachers: Course-Based and Standards-Based Approaches (APA, 2013a). R e s u lts The state and District of Columbia requirements for receiv ing the initial teaching credential to qualify the teacher to teach high school psychology are compiled in Table 1.
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Table 1 State and District o f Columbia Requirements for Earning the Initial Teaching Credential to Qualify the Teacher to Teach High School Psychology State
C redential
Requirement(s) besides com pleting approved teacher education program 0
Endorsement
States requiring the psychology credential to teach high school psychology (n = 13) AZ
C
Psychology
GA
C
Behavioral science
ID
c
Psychology
IL
c
IN
L
KS
L
Social science: Psychology Social studies: Psychology Psychology
Ml
C
Psychology
MT NJ
L C
Psychology Psychology
OK
SC SD TN
Complete 24 semester hours of psychology. N o psychology test required; state uses Pearson Arizona Educator Proficiency Assessments. Pass the Pearson Georgia Assessment for the Certification of Educators in Behavioral Science Test 1 Psychology (220) and Test 2 Sociology and Anthropology (220). Complete 20 semester credit hours in psychology and pass the ETS Praxis Psychology Test (600). Pass the Pearson Illinois Certification Testing System in Social Science: Psychology (240). Pass the Pearson Indiana CORE Assessments for Educator Licensure in Social Studies: Psychology (220). Complete a program that meets three state standards and pass the tI S Praxis Psychology lest (550). Pass the Pearson Michigan Test for Teacher Certification in Psychology (240). N o additional requirements. Minimum of 3 0 credit hours of psychology with at least 12 hours completed at the junior, senior, or graduate level. Pass the Pearson Certification Examination for Oklahoma Educators in Psychology/Sociology (240).
L initially; C after first year Social studies: with Resident Teacher Psychology/sociology Committee support Pass the EI3 Praxis Psychology lest (/2 0 ). C Psychology Social science education: Pass the ETS Praxis Psychology lest (520). C Psychology Pass the ETS Praxis Psychology Test (560). L Psychology
States requiring the social studies credential to teach high school psychology (n = 34) AL
C
General social science/ studies Social studies or social science Social studies
AK
C
AR
L
CA
Cr
Social science
CO
L
Social studies
CT
C
History/social studies
DE
C
Social studies
DC
L
Social studies
FL
C
Social studies
HI
C
Social studies
IA
L
KY
C
Social sciences—All social sciences Social studies
Pass the ETS Praxis Social Studies: Content Knowledge Test (153) . Pass the ETS Praxis Social Studies: Content Knowledge (150) or Social Science: Content Knowledge (161) Test. Pass the ETS Praxis Social Studies: Content Knowledge (153) Test. Pass the Pearson California Subject Examination for Teachers in Social Science (220). Pass either the ETS Praxis Social Studies: Content Knowledge Test (150) or the Pearson Program for Licensing Assessments for Colorado Educators in Social Studies (220). Pass the ETS Social Studies: Content Knowledge Praxis Test
l
1
62) .
Pass the ETS Social Studies: Content Knowledge Praxis Test (157). Pass the ETS Social Studies: Content Knowledge Praxis Test (145). Pass the Pearson Florida Teacher Certification Examination in Social Science (answer 67% of questions correctly). Pass the ETS Social Studies: Content Knowledge Praxis Test (154) . N o additional requirements. Pass the ETS Praxis Social Studies: Content Knowledge (151) and Social Studies: Interpretation of Materials (159) Tests.
(table continues)
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T a b le 1 ( c o n t in u e d ) State
Credential
LA
Endorsement
Social studies
MD
C
Social studies
MN
L
Social studies
MS
L
Social studies
MO
C
Social science
NV
L
NH
L
Comprehensive major or minor social studies Social studies
NM
L
NY
C
NC
L
Comprehensive social studies
ND
L
Composite social studies
OH
L
Integrated social studies
OR
L
Social science
PA
C
Social sciences or social studies
Rl TX
C C
Social studies Social studies: Grades
VT
L
Social studies
VA
L
WA
C
History and social science Social studies
WV
c
Social studies
Wl
L
Broad field social studies
WY
L
Social studies composite
History, geography, economics, civics, and government Social studies
8-12
NE UT
Requirement(s) besides com pleting approved teacher education program 0
Pass the ETS Praxis Social Studies Content Knowledge (149) and Social Studies Interpretation of Materials (152) Tests; must complete one psychology course other than educational psychology. Pass the ETS Praxis Social Studies: Content Knowledge (154) and Social Studies: Pedagogy (164) Tests. Pass the Pearson Minnesota Teacher Licensure Examination in Social Studies (Grades 5 -1 2 ) (240 for both subtests). Pass the ETS Praxis Social Studies: Content Knowledqe Test (143). Pass the ETS Praxis Social Studies: Content Knowledqe Test (152). Pass the ETS Praxis Social Studies: Content Knowledqe Test (152). Pass the ETS Praxis Social Studies: Content Knowledge (155) and Social Studies: Analytical Essays (145) Tests. Pass the Pearson N ew M exico Teacher Assessment in History, Geography, Economics, Civics, and Government with a score of 240. Pass the Pearson N ew York State Teacher Certification Examination in Social Studies (220). If approved teacher education program is not an academic major or equivalent in social studies, pass the ETS Praxis Social Studies: Content Knowledge Test and the Social Studies: Pedagogy Test (combined score of 320). Pass the ETS Praxis Social Studies: Content Knowledqe Test (152) . Pass the Pearson O hio Assessments for Educators in Integrated Social Studies (220). Pass the Pearson Oregon Educator Licensure Assessment in Social Science (237). Pass the ETS Praxis Social Studies: Content Knowledge Test (qualifying score ranges from 162 if grade point average [GPA is 2 .8 0 -2 .9 9 to 152 if GPA is 3 .7 6 -4 .0 0 ) or the Socia Sciences: Content Knowledge Praxis Test (160). N o additional requirements. Pass the ETS Texas Examination of Educator Standards in Social Studies Grades 8 -1 2 (240). Pass the ETS Praxis Social Studies: Content and Interpretation Test (153). Pass the ETS Praxis Social Studies: Content Knowledqe Test (161). Pass the Pearson Washington Educator Skills Test-Endorsement in Social Studies (240). Pass the ETS Praxis Social Studies: Content Knowledqe Test (148). Pass the ETS Praxis Social Studies: Content Knowledqe Test (153) . Pass the ETS Praxis Social Studies: Content Knowledqe Test (158).
States requiring social studies or psychology credential to teach high school psychology (n = 2) C Social sciences or No additional requirements. psychology L Social studies composite Pass the ETS Praxis Social Studies: Content Knowledge Test or psychology (major) (159) or the ETS Praxis Psychology Test (620).
( t a b l e c o n tin u e s )
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Table 1 ( c o n tin u e d ) State
Requirements] besides com pleting approved teacher education program 0
Endorsement
C redential
States accepting any teaching field on the credential to teach high school psychology (n = 2) ME
C
None
MA
L
None
Earn a certificate in any secondary teaching field (pass the ETS Praxis Test for that field); the local school district selects who teaches the high school psychology course. Earn a certificate in any secondary teaching field (pass the Pearson Massachusetts Test for Education Licensure for that field); the local school district selects who teaches the high school psychology course.
N o te . C = Certificate; ETS = Educational Testing Service; L = License; C r = Credential. ° Numbers in parentheses are the qualifying score or the passing score set by the state to successfully demonstrate a level o f content knowledge to teach effectively.
Grade levels are not included, as all of the credentials in the table encompass Grades 9-12. The most common path for becoming a high school psychology teacher in the United States is obtaining the teaching credential in social studies. Two thirds of the states (n = 34) require the social studies credential to teach high school psychology courses. The tests the states require to validate content knowl edge provide a window into the curricula of the different teaching fields. Accurately determining the breadth and depth of the psychology coursework required for a teaching credential across the states is possible based on the number and content of the questions about psychology. For exam ple, the Praxis Psychology Test (Educational Testing Ser vice, 2012, p. 11) consists of approximately 20 questions on methods, approaches, ethics, and assessment; 19 ques tions on biopsychology, sensation and perception, and states of consciousness; 15 questions on life span develop ment and individual differences; 19 questions on learning, memory, and cognition; 28 questions on personality, social psychology, motivation and emotion, and stress; and 19 questions on psychological disorders and treatment. Except for individual differences, every other category of question is identical to a domain, standard area, or content standard in the National Standards (APA, 2013b). From the ques tion categories, one concludes definitively that the psychol ogy teacher preparation curriculum is comparable to a psychology major. Of the 34 states requiring the social studies credential, 21 require the Praxis Social Studies: Content Knowledge Test. According to the Praxis Study Companion: Social Studies (Educational Testing Service, 2013), the multiplechoice question test covers six content categories with the following percentage of examination items: 20% U.S. his tory, 20% world history, 20% government/civics/political science, 15% geography, 15% economics, and 10% behav ioral sciences. The behavioral sciences category is split among anthropology, psychology, and sociology and con tributes 13 of the 130 multiple-choice questions. Thus, one third of 13 questions, or 4.3% of the test items, are from psychology (2 of the 29 sample test questions in the Praxis Study Companion come from psychology). The social stud
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ies teacher preparation curriculum is heavily oriented to coursework in U.S. and world history, government, geog raphy, and economics. Nine of the 34 states require passing the Pearson Education Series Social Studies Content Knowledge Test to earn the social studies teaching credential. Unlike the one Praxis Social Studies Content Knowledge Test, each state’s Pearson test is customized to state specifications; thus, there are small variations of the same test across states. Table 2 presents the categories of questions for the tests used in the nine states. The tests for only two of the nine states have a behavioral and social science category containing anthropology, psychology, and sociology ques tions. The proportion of psychology questions is compara ble to that on the Praxis test, between 3% and 4% of the total questions. Thus, both Praxis and Pearson tests of social studies include few if any questions about psychol ogy, a corroboration of the meager presence of psychology coursework in the curriculum to prepare social studies teachers.
Discussion Most high school psychology teachers in the nation enter their classrooms having completed undergraduate prepara tion with little psychology coursework. This limited prep aration does not mean that these psychology teachers are not effective, but it does highlight the importance of pro fessional learning supports, such as TOPSS Lesson Plans; the Resource Manual fo r New Teachers o f High School Psychology (APA, 2012); the annual APA-Clark Univer sity Workshop for High School Teachers; past National Science Foundation and other foundation summer institutes (Weaver, 2005); and workshops at state, regional, and national conventions. An opportunity for expanding the number of states that require the psychology teaching credential is the ap proval of The College, Career, and Civic Life (C3) Frame work fo r Social Studies State Standards: Guidance for Enhancing the Rigor o f K-12 Civics, Economics, Geogra phy, and History (National Council for the Social Studies, 2013). Prior to the framework’s approval, psychology was
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Table 2 C a te g o rie s o f Q uestions on the Pearson E ducation S o c ia l Studies Tests in States R equiring the S o c ia l Studies C re d e n tia l to Teach H ig h S ch o o l P sychology State
Test and categories
CA
California Subject Examinations for Teachers: Social Science (Pearson Education, 201 3a): 29% world history, 29%
CO FL
MN
NM
NY
OH OR WA
U.S. history, 4% world geography, 4% U.S. geography, 15% civics, 13% economics, 6% California history; 127 questions Program for Licensing Assessments for Colorado Educators: Social Studies (Pearson Education, 2 012): history, geography, political science, economics, behavioral and social sciences, social studies inquiry and skills; 100 questions'5 Florida Teacher Certification Examinations: Social Science 6-12 (State of Florida, 2009): 25% world history, 25% U.S. history, 10% geography, 15% economics, 15% political science, 10% behavioral and social sciences; 120 questions'5 Minnesota Teacher Licensure Examinations: Social Studies 5-12 (Pearson Education, 2010): 16% world history, 16% U.S. and Minnesota history, 15% geography, 15% government and citizenship, 10% economics, 17% social studies skills, 10% behavioral sciences; 100 questions'5 New Mexico Teacher Assessments: History, Geography, Economics, Civics, and Government (National Evaluation Systems, 2004): history, geography and culture, economics, political science and government, social studies skills; 100 questions New York State Teacher Certification Examinations: Social Studies (National Evaluation Systems, 2006): 35% history; 15% geography; 12% economics; 16% civics, citizenship, and government; 12% social studies skills; 10% history: constructed-response assignment; 91 questions'5 Ohio Assessments for Educators: Integrated Social Studies (Pearson Education, 2013b): 25% historiography and world history, 25% U.S. history, 19% geography and culture, 19% government, 12% economics; 150 questions Oregon Educator Licensure Assessments: Social Science (Pearson Education, 2 011): 25% historiography and world history, 25% U.S. histoiy, 19% geography and culture, 19% government, 12% economics; 150 questions'5 Washington Educator Skills Tests: Social Studies (Pearson Education, 2008): 20% world history, 20% U.S. history, 16% geography, 16% civics, 12% economics, 16% social studies concepts and skills; 110 questions'5
a Numbers o f questions are approxim ate.
listed among the disciplines that constituted social studies (National Council for the Social Studies, 2010). In the C3 Framework, psychology is absent. An outstanding effort by the APA Education Directorate resulted in psychology being added as an appendix to the framework (E. Leary Chesnes, personal communication, June 7, 2013). With the social studies teaching credential required to teach psychol ogy in 34 states, relegating psychology to an appendix of the framework raises the possibility that psychology courses could be eliminated altogether from the social studies teacher preparation curricula around the nation. The C3 Framework is “designed to guide states in their efforts to upgrade their social studies standards and to inform the pedagogical approaches of social studies edu cators” (Herczog, 2013, p. 331). Consequently, states will review their credentialing requirements for social studies teachers, providing an opportunity for psychology to advo cate actively for creating a psychology credential in the 34 states that currently require the social studies credential to teach psychology courses. The foundation for advocacy efforts is the Guidelines fo r Preparing High School Psychology Teachers: CourseBased and Standards-Based Approaches (APA, 2013a). They include two approaches for preparing teachers, which align with the two primary approaches currently used by states to credential teachers: either completing a set of
September 2014 • American Psychologist
courses or meeting a set of standards. The Guidelines position the discipline to provide states with invaluable guidance when they are considering creating the psychol ogy credential. The modification of a state’s credentialing require ments occurs rarely, because the undertaking is consider able, but psychology is positioned for effective advocacy because of the following seven factors: • The National Standards fo r High School Psychol ogy Curricula • The Guidelines fo r Preparing High School Psychol ogy Teachers: Course-Based and Standards-Based Approaches • TOPSS leaders and members and other high school psychology teachers in each state • Leaders and members of state psychological asso ciations • Psychology faculty at public and private higher education institutions in each state • Other psychologists working in the public and pri vate sectors in each state • The leadership of APA, APA’s Education Direc torate (especially the Office of Precollege and Undergraduate Education), APA’s Science Direc-
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torate, and the Association for Psychological Science. Galvanizing these pieces into an informed, collabora tive, and cohesive coalition will create the basis for effec tively advocating to state education policymakers the value of high school teachers prepared to teach psychology (reg ular, Advanced Placement, and International Baccalaure ate) according to the National Standards. By monitoring agencies in the 34 states that oversee teacher credentialing, the coalition will know when the review of social studies teacher preparation requirements is planned. Thoroughly preparing coalition members about the National Standards, the Guidelines, the concerns with the social studies creden tial, and the benefits to students from the proposed psy chology credential will optimize their advocacy effective ness. “The American Psychological Association expects high school psychology teachers to have the preparation necessary to teach the course properly as specified in the National Standards fo r High School Psychology Curri cula” (APA, 2013a, p. 42). If “all psychology teachers have an ethical responsibility to ensure that accurate scientific content is presented with quality” (Ewing et al., 2010, p. 93), then earning a psychology, in contrast to a social studies, teaching credential provides such assurance. For many students, high school psychology courses are their only exposure to psychology (Keith et ah, 2013). The National Standards undergird the quality of the cur riculum; teachers must have the depth and breadth of psychology content knowledge to teach the courses effec tively. Such preparation is obtained through earning a psychology teaching credential. Psychology has worked diligently for 20 years to prepare itself to effectively advocate for establishing a psychology teaching credential as a qualification for teach ing high school psychology courses. It is time to put all the pieces together in order to do so. REFERENCES
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Carstens, C. B., & Beck, H. P. (1986). The relationship of high school psychology and natural science courses to performance in a college introductory psychology class. Teaching o f Psychology, 13, 116-118. doi: 10.1207/s 15328023top 1303_3 College Board. (2013). AP program participation and performance data 2013. Retrieved from http://research.collegeboard.org/programs/ap/ data/participation/2013 Educational Testing Service. (2012). The Praxis study companion: Psy chology 0391. Retrieved from http://www.ets.Org/s/praxis/pdf/0391.pdf Educational Testing Service. (2013). The Praxis study companion: Social studies: Content knowledge 0081/5081. Retrieved from http://www .ets.org/s/praxis/pdf/5081.pdf Engle, T. L. (1952a). Teaching of psychology in high schools. American Psychologist, 7, 31-35. doi:10.1037/h0054811 Engle, T. L. (1952b). The training and experience of high-school teachers of psychology. Education Administration & Supervision, 38, 91-96. Engle, T. L. (1967). Objectives for and subject matter stressed in high school courses in psychology. American Psychologist, 22, 162-166. doi: 10.1037/h0024456 Ernst, R., & Petrossian, P. (1996). Teachers of Psychology in Secondary Schools (TOPSS): Aiming for excellence in high school psychology instruction. American Psychologist, 51, 256-258. doi: 10.1037/0003066X.51.3.256 Ewing, A. T., Andre, J., Blair-Broeker, C. T., Fineburg, A. C., Daniel, J. H., Higa, J. J., . . . Weaver, K. A. (2010). When and where people learn psychological science: The sun never sets. In D. F. Halpern (Ed.), Undergraduate education in psychology: A blueprint fo r the future o f the discipline (pp. 81-93). doi:10.1037/12063-005 Gardner, H., & Shulman, L. S. (2005). The professions in America today: C rucial but fragile. Daedalus, 134, 13-18. doi: 10.1162/ 0011526054622132 Griggs, R. A., Jackson, S. L., & Meyer, M. E. (1989). High school and college psychology: Two different worlds. Teaching o f Psychology, 16, 118-120. doi: 10.1207/sl5328023topl603_3 Gruber, C., McEntarffer, R., & Weaver, K. A. (2002, Fall). The psychol ogy endorsement for high school psychology teachers. Psychology Teacher Network, 12, 10-13. Henderson, B. B. (1994). The role of psychology departments in support ing secondary school teachers of psychology. Teaching o f Psychology, 21, 107-108. doi: 10.1207/s 15328023top2102_12 Herczog, M. M. (2013). The links between the C3 framework and the NCSS national curriculum standards for social studies. Social Educa tion, 77, 331-333. Kasschau, R. A., & Wertheimer, M. (1974). Teaching psychology in secondary schools. Washington, DC: American Psychological Associ ation. Keith, K. D., Yost Hammer, E., Blair-Broeker, C. T., & Ernst, R. M. (2013). High school psychology: A coming of age story. Teaching o f Psychology, 40, 311-317. doi:10.1177/0098628313501044 Louttit, C. M. (1956). Psychology in nineteenth century high schools. American Psychologist, 11, 717. doi:10.1037/h0046157 Mathie, V. A. (2002). Building academic partnerships in psychology: The Psychology Partnerships Project. American Psychologist, 57, 915-926. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.57.11.915 Mitchell, K. J., Robinson, D. Z., Plake, B. S„ & Knowles, K. T. (Eds.). (2001). Testing teacher candidates: The role o f licensure tests in improving teacher quality. Retrieved from http://www.nap.edu/ catalog.php?record_id= 10090#toc National Council for the Social Studies. (2010). National curriculum standards fo r social studies: A framework fo r teaching, learning, and assessment. Silver Spring, MD: Author. National Council for the Social Studies. (2013). The college, career, and civic life (C3) framework fo r social studies state standards: Guidance fo r enhancing the rigor o f K-12 civics, economics, geography, and history. Retrieved from http://www.socialstudies.org/system/files/c3/ C3-Framework-for-Social-Studies.pdf National Evaluation Systems. (2004). New Mexico teacher assessments: History, geography, economics, civics, and government study guide. Retrieved from http://www.nmta.nesinc.com/PDFs/NM_fidl6_SG.pdf National Evaluation Systems. (2006). New York State Teacher Certifica tion Examinations: Social studies preparation guide. Retrieved from http://www.nystce.nesinc.com/PDFs/NY_fld005_prepguide.pdf
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Pearson Education. (2008). Washington Educator Skills Tests: Social studies test summary and framework. Retrieved from http://www.west .nesinc.com/PDFs/WA_FW_028.pdf Pearson Education. (2010). Minnesota Teacher Licensure Examinations: Social studies (Grades 5-12) test framework worksheet. Retrieved from http://www.mtle.nesinc.com/Content/Docs/MN052_TFWorksheet.pdf Pearson Education. (2011). National Evaluation Series social science test framework. Retrieved from http://www.orela.nesinc.com/Content/ Docs/NES_Framework_303.pdf Pearson Education. (2012). Program for licensing assessments for Colo rado educators. Retrieved from http://www.place.nesinc.com/PDFs/ CO_FLD006_studyguide.pdf Pearson Education. (2013a). California Subject Examinations for Teach ers: Social science test guide. Retrieved from http://www.ctcexams .nesinc.com/PDF/CSET_Prep/CS_socialscience_geninfo.pdf Pearson Education. (2013b). Ohio Assessments fo r Educators assessment: Integrated social studies assessment design and framework. Retrieved from http://www.oh.nesinc.com/CONTENT/STUDYGUIDE/OH_SG_ obj_025.htm Ragland, R. G. (1992). Teachers and teacher education in high school psychology: A national survey. Teaching o f Psychology, 19, 73-78. doi: 10.1207/s 15328023top 1902_2 Ravitch, D. (2002, March). A brief history o f teacher professionalism. Paper presented at the White House Conference on Preparing Tomor row’s Teachers, Washington, DC. Retrieved from http://www2.ed.gov/ admins/tchrqual/leam/preparingteachersconference/ravitch.html Roback, A. A. (1952). Psychology in American secondary schools in the ’90’s. American Psychologist, 7, 44-45. doi:10.1037/h0059480
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Shulman, L. S. (1998). Theory, practice, and the education of profession als. The Elementary School Principal, 98, 511-526. Sprinthall, N. A. (1980). Psychology for secondary schools: The saber tooth curriculum revisited? American Psychologist, 35, 336-347. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.35.4.336 State of Florida. (2009). Florida Teacher Certification Examinations: Social science 6-12 test information guide (4th ed.). Retrieved from http://www.fl.nesinc.com/PDFs/SS6-12_TIG_4th%20Edition_DOE042 310.pdf Stone, C. P., & Watson, G. B. (1937). Committee to Study Problems Connected With the Teaching of Psychology: Report A. Survey on teaching psychology in secondary schools. Psychological Bulletin, 34, 660-674. Weaver, K. A. (1996). Teaching of psychology: Opportunity and vision. The Psychology Teacher Network, 6, pp.l, 5. Weaver, K. A. (2002). The value of national standards. American Psychologist, 57, 4 5 0 -4 5 1 . doi:10.1037/0003-066X.57.6-7 .450 Weaver, K. A. (2005). 1992 through 2001: An incredible 10 years for high school psychology. Journal o f Social and Clinical Psychology, 24, 97-110. doi:10.1521/jscp.24.1.97.59171 Weaver, K. A., & Davidson, M. J. (1997, August). Collaboration between high school and college psychology faculty: Four models. Symposium presented at the 105th Annual Meeting of the American Psychological Association, Chicago, IL. White, K. M., Marcuella, H., & Oresick, R. (1979). Psychology in the high schools. Teaching o f Psychology, 6, 39-42. doi:10.1207/ sl5328023top0601_12
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Emporia State University
The National Standards for High School Psychology Cur ricula (American Psychological Association, 2013b) re
to Study Problems Connected With the Teaching of Psy chology in High Schools and Junior College and continuing to the present with the 1992 formation of Teachers of quire a teacher with considerable psychology content Psychology in Secondary Schools (TOPSS). A second knowledge to teach high school psychology courses effec theme is concern about the variable scientific rigor of the tively. In this study, I examined the initial teaching creden courses (e.g., Carstens & Beck, 1986; Griggs, Jackson, & tial requirements for high school psychology teachers in Meyer, 1989; White, Marcuella, & Oresick, 1979), which the 50 states plus the District of Columbia. Thirty-four has prompted periodic review of both the curriculum and states (the District of Columbia is included as a state) require the social studies credential to teach high school teacher quality. psychology. An analysis of the items on standardized tests Professional development for high school psychology teachers dramatically improved in the 1990s (Weaver, used by states to validate the content knowledge required to 2005). The Psych-News listserv, the AP Psychology exam teach social studies indicates little or no presence of psy chology, a reflection of psychology’s meager presence in ination, the creation of TOPSS (Ernst & Petrossian, 1996), the social studies teacher preparation curricula. Thus, new convention programming for high school teachers (Hen teachers with the social studies teaching credential are not derson, 1994; Weaver, 1996; Weaver & Davidson, 1997), prepared to teach high school psychology according to the and summer institutes funded by the National Science and Arthur National Standards. Approval of The College, Career, and Vining Davis Foundations (Weaver, 2005) provided abundant Civic Life (C3) Framework for Social Studies State Stan opportunities for learning psychological science and instilled dards: Guidance for Enhancing the Rigor of K -12 Civics, an esprit de corps among a cadre of dedicated and visionary Economics, Geography, and History (National Council for high school teachers. The Psychology Partnerships Project the Social Studies, 2013) presents an opportunity to advo (Mathie, 2002) reframed the high school psychology cate for establishing a psychology credential in the 34 teacher as a valued and valuable colleague and reaffirmed states. the high school course as the critically important gateway into the study of psychological science. Keywords: high school psychology, teaching, credentialing The approval of the National Standards for the Teach ing of High School Psychology (APA, 1999) ended the he National Standards for High School Psychology decade, resolving two contentious issues: (a) W hat is the Curricula (American Psychological Association content of high school psychology courses? and (b) What [APA], 2013b) are the foundation for the high preparation is needed for high school psychology teachers? school course, providing teachers a benchmark with which For the first contentious issue, survey researchers through to craft local curricula (Ernst & Petrossian, 1996). Approx out the 20th century (e.g., Abrams & Stanley, 1967; imately 1,000,000 American high school students annually Breland, 1978; Burgum, 1940; Engle, 1952a, 1952b, 1967; complete a psychology course (APA, 2013a), and almost Ragland, 1992; Stone & Watson, 1937) invariably reported 233,000 high school students took the Advanced Placement the competing course content of personal development, (AP) psychology exam in 2013, the sixth highest number mental health, and knowledge of self versus the theories, among the 34 subjects tested (College Board, 2013). Al research findings, and methodologies of psychological sci though a firm count of high school psychology teachers in ence (Kasschau & Wertheimer, 1974, pp. 4 8 -4 9 ). the nation is not available, A PA’s Office of Precollege and The standards, now updated and referred to as the Undergraduate Education has used several methods to es National Standards for High School Psychology Curricula timate a range of 5,942 to 9,214 teachers (E. Leary (APA, 2013b), unequivocally define the course content as Chesnes, personal communication, January 9, 2014). This a blend of the two perspectives, with content standards that study examines the quality of U.S. teachers’ psychology include both scientific knowledge and the application of content knowledge to qualify them to teach the high school psychology courses according to the National Standards. Benjamin (2001) and Keith, Yost Hammer, BlairThis article was published Online First June 9, 2014. I wish to thank Pooja K. Agarwal for helpful comments on drafts of this Broeker, and Ernst (2013) have chronicled the history of article. the high school psychology course from its origins in the Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Ken 19th century (Louttit, 1956; Roback, 1952). One theme neth A. Weaver, Office of the Dean, The Teachers College, Emporia State they identified is the enduring importance of the course to University, 1200 Commercial Street, Emporia, KS 66801. E-mail: [email protected] APA, starting in 1935 with the creation of the Committee
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knowledge needed by high school psychology teachers (Weaver, 2002). Does earning a state’s initial teaching credential require psychology content knowledge sufficient to teach effectively the high school courses based on the National Standards? M e th o d
K e n n e th A . W eaver
that knowledge (e.g., “Explain the concepts of threshold and adaptation,” p. 35; “Apply classical conditioning to everyday life,” p. 36). The National Standards undergird a high school curriculum that emphasizes “a consistent in terplay between actual, real-world application and intellec tual analysis of the principles and concepts involved” (Sprinthall, 1980, p. 342). The second contentious issue was determining the preparation of high school psychology teachers. Although several suggested undergraduate psychology education curricula exist (e.g., Gruber, McEntarffer, & Weaver, 2002; Ragland, 1992; Sprinthall, 1980), the National Standards answered the question: A high school psychology teacher is prepared to teach the courses as defined by the standards and is knowledgeable in psychological science and its application to create relevant learning experiences that stimulate both the intellectual and the psychological growth of adolescents (Sprinthall, 1980, p. 346). As a profession (Gardner & Shulman, 2005; Shulman, 1998), education started establishing criteria for entry into teaching in 1834, when Pennsylvania was the first state to require teacher candidates to pass a test of reading, writing, and arithmetic (Ravitch, 2002). The teacher credential (i.e., certificate or license) attests that the teacher possesses the requisite knowledge in content and pedagogy to teach the content effectively. Each state determines its requirements for credentialing a teacher in a content area to ensure that students have competent teachers (Mitchell, Robinson, Plake, & Knowles, 2001) in a particular discipline. This preparation requires attaining a level of content and peda gogical knowledge expertise by completing a set of college courses that satisfy required coursework or standards set by the state. The National Standards fo r High School Psychology Curricula (APA, 2013b) define the psychology content
September 2014 • American Psychologist
I selected the initial teaching credential for newly gradu ated teachers because it is the norm in contrast to pursuing an alternative route (e.g., post baccalaureate, m aster’s de gree), adding a teaching field to the credential, or transfer ring a credential from another state. From June 2010 through June 20 1 3 ,1 carefully examined the websites of the state agencies charged with teacher credentialing (usually the state departments of education) in all 50 states and the District of Columbia and contacted agency personnel with questions. The Educational Testing Service (ETS) Praxis (www.ets.org/praxis) and Pearson Education National Evaluation Series (http://www.nestest.com/) websites pro vided state-specific information on content knowledge tests required for credentialing teachers. After compiling the data, I asked state agency officials or other professionals with a knowledge of their states’ credentialing (e.g., school district human resource officers, state TOPSS leaders) to either verify or correct my information. All states require candidates to complete an approved teacher preparation curriculum to become credentialed. While the curriculum may differ by institutions (and other providers) and by states, it includes coursework in general education, secondary education (e.g., classroom manage ment, developmental characteristics of secondary stu dents), the content area, pedagogy, and other areas such as integrating technology into teaching and learning. Answering my research question required focusing on the content area knowledge required by each state to teach psychology. States define content area knowledge in mul tiple ways, including specifying courses, specifying a num ber of course credit hours to complete (e.g., 30 semester hours to meet No Child Left Behind guidelines for the Highly Qualified Teacher designation), or developing stan dards and allowing teacher preparation programs in that state to specify the curriculum to meet the standards. For example, Arizona requires any 24 hours of psychology coursework to earn the psychology teaching credential. In contrast, Kansas establishes state standards to become a psychology teacher and requires teacher preparation col leges and universities to submit evidence that their candi dates are meeting the standards; individual institutions de velop the curricula in alignment with the state standards. Both paths to earning the teaching credential are repre sented in the Guidelines fo r Preparing High School Psy
chology Teachers: Course-Based and Standards-Based Approaches (APA, 2013a). R e s u lts The state and District of Columbia requirements for receiv ing the initial teaching credential to qualify the teacher to teach high school psychology are compiled in Table 1.
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Table 1 State and District o f Columbia Requirements for Earning the Initial Teaching Credential to Qualify the Teacher to Teach High School Psychology State
C redential
Requirement(s) besides com pleting approved teacher education program 0
Endorsement
States requiring the psychology credential to teach high school psychology (n = 13) AZ
C
Psychology
GA
C
Behavioral science
ID
c
Psychology
IL
c
IN
L
KS
L
Social science: Psychology Social studies: Psychology Psychology
Ml
C
Psychology
MT NJ
L C
Psychology Psychology
OK
SC SD TN
Complete 24 semester hours of psychology. N o psychology test required; state uses Pearson Arizona Educator Proficiency Assessments. Pass the Pearson Georgia Assessment for the Certification of Educators in Behavioral Science Test 1 Psychology (220) and Test 2 Sociology and Anthropology (220). Complete 20 semester credit hours in psychology and pass the ETS Praxis Psychology Test (600). Pass the Pearson Illinois Certification Testing System in Social Science: Psychology (240). Pass the Pearson Indiana CORE Assessments for Educator Licensure in Social Studies: Psychology (220). Complete a program that meets three state standards and pass the tI S Praxis Psychology lest (550). Pass the Pearson Michigan Test for Teacher Certification in Psychology (240). N o additional requirements. Minimum of 3 0 credit hours of psychology with at least 12 hours completed at the junior, senior, or graduate level. Pass the Pearson Certification Examination for Oklahoma Educators in Psychology/Sociology (240).
L initially; C after first year Social studies: with Resident Teacher Psychology/sociology Committee support Pass the EI3 Praxis Psychology lest (/2 0 ). C Psychology Social science education: Pass the ETS Praxis Psychology lest (520). C Psychology Pass the ETS Praxis Psychology Test (560). L Psychology
States requiring the social studies credential to teach high school psychology (n = 34) AL
C
General social science/ studies Social studies or social science Social studies
AK
C
AR
L
CA
Cr
Social science
CO
L
Social studies
CT
C
History/social studies
DE
C
Social studies
DC
L
Social studies
FL
C
Social studies
HI
C
Social studies
IA
L
KY
C
Social sciences—All social sciences Social studies
Pass the ETS Praxis Social Studies: Content Knowledge Test (153) . Pass the ETS Praxis Social Studies: Content Knowledge (150) or Social Science: Content Knowledge (161) Test. Pass the ETS Praxis Social Studies: Content Knowledge (153) Test. Pass the Pearson California Subject Examination for Teachers in Social Science (220). Pass either the ETS Praxis Social Studies: Content Knowledge Test (150) or the Pearson Program for Licensing Assessments for Colorado Educators in Social Studies (220). Pass the ETS Social Studies: Content Knowledge Praxis Test
l
1
62) .
Pass the ETS Social Studies: Content Knowledge Praxis Test (157). Pass the ETS Social Studies: Content Knowledge Praxis Test (145). Pass the Pearson Florida Teacher Certification Examination in Social Science (answer 67% of questions correctly). Pass the ETS Social Studies: Content Knowledge Praxis Test (154) . N o additional requirements. Pass the ETS Praxis Social Studies: Content Knowledge (151) and Social Studies: Interpretation of Materials (159) Tests.
(table continues)
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T a b le 1 ( c o n t in u e d ) State
Credential
LA
Endorsement
Social studies
MD
C
Social studies
MN
L
Social studies
MS
L
Social studies
MO
C
Social science
NV
L
NH
L
Comprehensive major or minor social studies Social studies
NM
L
NY
C
NC
L
Comprehensive social studies
ND
L
Composite social studies
OH
L
Integrated social studies
OR
L
Social science
PA
C
Social sciences or social studies
Rl TX
C C
Social studies Social studies: Grades
VT
L
Social studies
VA
L
WA
C
History and social science Social studies
WV
c
Social studies
Wl
L
Broad field social studies
WY
L
Social studies composite
History, geography, economics, civics, and government Social studies
8-12
NE UT
Requirement(s) besides com pleting approved teacher education program 0
Pass the ETS Praxis Social Studies Content Knowledge (149) and Social Studies Interpretation of Materials (152) Tests; must complete one psychology course other than educational psychology. Pass the ETS Praxis Social Studies: Content Knowledge (154) and Social Studies: Pedagogy (164) Tests. Pass the Pearson Minnesota Teacher Licensure Examination in Social Studies (Grades 5 -1 2 ) (240 for both subtests). Pass the ETS Praxis Social Studies: Content Knowledqe Test (143). Pass the ETS Praxis Social Studies: Content Knowledqe Test (152). Pass the ETS Praxis Social Studies: Content Knowledqe Test (152). Pass the ETS Praxis Social Studies: Content Knowledge (155) and Social Studies: Analytical Essays (145) Tests. Pass the Pearson N ew M exico Teacher Assessment in History, Geography, Economics, Civics, and Government with a score of 240. Pass the Pearson N ew York State Teacher Certification Examination in Social Studies (220). If approved teacher education program is not an academic major or equivalent in social studies, pass the ETS Praxis Social Studies: Content Knowledge Test and the Social Studies: Pedagogy Test (combined score of 320). Pass the ETS Praxis Social Studies: Content Knowledqe Test (152) . Pass the Pearson O hio Assessments for Educators in Integrated Social Studies (220). Pass the Pearson Oregon Educator Licensure Assessment in Social Science (237). Pass the ETS Praxis Social Studies: Content Knowledge Test (qualifying score ranges from 162 if grade point average [GPA is 2 .8 0 -2 .9 9 to 152 if GPA is 3 .7 6 -4 .0 0 ) or the Socia Sciences: Content Knowledge Praxis Test (160). N o additional requirements. Pass the ETS Texas Examination of Educator Standards in Social Studies Grades 8 -1 2 (240). Pass the ETS Praxis Social Studies: Content and Interpretation Test (153). Pass the ETS Praxis Social Studies: Content Knowledqe Test (161). Pass the Pearson Washington Educator Skills Test-Endorsement in Social Studies (240). Pass the ETS Praxis Social Studies: Content Knowledqe Test (148). Pass the ETS Praxis Social Studies: Content Knowledqe Test (153) . Pass the ETS Praxis Social Studies: Content Knowledqe Test (158).
States requiring social studies or psychology credential to teach high school psychology (n = 2) C Social sciences or No additional requirements. psychology L Social studies composite Pass the ETS Praxis Social Studies: Content Knowledge Test or psychology (major) (159) or the ETS Praxis Psychology Test (620).
( t a b l e c o n tin u e s )
September 2014 • American Psychologist
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Table 1 ( c o n tin u e d ) State
Requirements] besides com pleting approved teacher education program 0
Endorsement
C redential
States accepting any teaching field on the credential to teach high school psychology (n = 2) ME
C
None
MA
L
None
Earn a certificate in any secondary teaching field (pass the ETS Praxis Test for that field); the local school district selects who teaches the high school psychology course. Earn a certificate in any secondary teaching field (pass the Pearson Massachusetts Test for Education Licensure for that field); the local school district selects who teaches the high school psychology course.
N o te . C = Certificate; ETS = Educational Testing Service; L = License; C r = Credential. ° Numbers in parentheses are the qualifying score or the passing score set by the state to successfully demonstrate a level o f content knowledge to teach effectively.
Grade levels are not included, as all of the credentials in the table encompass Grades 9-12. The most common path for becoming a high school psychology teacher in the United States is obtaining the teaching credential in social studies. Two thirds of the states (n = 34) require the social studies credential to teach high school psychology courses. The tests the states require to validate content knowl edge provide a window into the curricula of the different teaching fields. Accurately determining the breadth and depth of the psychology coursework required for a teaching credential across the states is possible based on the number and content of the questions about psychology. For exam ple, the Praxis Psychology Test (Educational Testing Ser vice, 2012, p. 11) consists of approximately 20 questions on methods, approaches, ethics, and assessment; 19 ques tions on biopsychology, sensation and perception, and states of consciousness; 15 questions on life span develop ment and individual differences; 19 questions on learning, memory, and cognition; 28 questions on personality, social psychology, motivation and emotion, and stress; and 19 questions on psychological disorders and treatment. Except for individual differences, every other category of question is identical to a domain, standard area, or content standard in the National Standards (APA, 2013b). From the ques tion categories, one concludes definitively that the psychol ogy teacher preparation curriculum is comparable to a psychology major. Of the 34 states requiring the social studies credential, 21 require the Praxis Social Studies: Content Knowledge Test. According to the Praxis Study Companion: Social Studies (Educational Testing Service, 2013), the multiplechoice question test covers six content categories with the following percentage of examination items: 20% U.S. his tory, 20% world history, 20% government/civics/political science, 15% geography, 15% economics, and 10% behav ioral sciences. The behavioral sciences category is split among anthropology, psychology, and sociology and con tributes 13 of the 130 multiple-choice questions. Thus, one third of 13 questions, or 4.3% of the test items, are from psychology (2 of the 29 sample test questions in the Praxis Study Companion come from psychology). The social stud
616
ies teacher preparation curriculum is heavily oriented to coursework in U.S. and world history, government, geog raphy, and economics. Nine of the 34 states require passing the Pearson Education Series Social Studies Content Knowledge Test to earn the social studies teaching credential. Unlike the one Praxis Social Studies Content Knowledge Test, each state’s Pearson test is customized to state specifications; thus, there are small variations of the same test across states. Table 2 presents the categories of questions for the tests used in the nine states. The tests for only two of the nine states have a behavioral and social science category containing anthropology, psychology, and sociology ques tions. The proportion of psychology questions is compara ble to that on the Praxis test, between 3% and 4% of the total questions. Thus, both Praxis and Pearson tests of social studies include few if any questions about psychol ogy, a corroboration of the meager presence of psychology coursework in the curriculum to prepare social studies teachers.
Discussion Most high school psychology teachers in the nation enter their classrooms having completed undergraduate prepara tion with little psychology coursework. This limited prep aration does not mean that these psychology teachers are not effective, but it does highlight the importance of pro fessional learning supports, such as TOPSS Lesson Plans; the Resource Manual fo r New Teachers o f High School Psychology (APA, 2012); the annual APA-Clark Univer sity Workshop for High School Teachers; past National Science Foundation and other foundation summer institutes (Weaver, 2005); and workshops at state, regional, and national conventions. An opportunity for expanding the number of states that require the psychology teaching credential is the ap proval of The College, Career, and Civic Life (C3) Frame work fo r Social Studies State Standards: Guidance for Enhancing the Rigor o f K-12 Civics, Economics, Geogra phy, and History (National Council for the Social Studies, 2013). Prior to the framework’s approval, psychology was
September 2014 • American Psychologist
Table 2 C a te g o rie s o f Q uestions on the Pearson E ducation S o c ia l Studies Tests in States R equiring the S o c ia l Studies C re d e n tia l to Teach H ig h S ch o o l P sychology State
Test and categories
CA
California Subject Examinations for Teachers: Social Science (Pearson Education, 201 3a): 29% world history, 29%
CO FL
MN
NM
NY
OH OR WA
U.S. history, 4% world geography, 4% U.S. geography, 15% civics, 13% economics, 6% California history; 127 questions Program for Licensing Assessments for Colorado Educators: Social Studies (Pearson Education, 2 012): history, geography, political science, economics, behavioral and social sciences, social studies inquiry and skills; 100 questions'5 Florida Teacher Certification Examinations: Social Science 6-12 (State of Florida, 2009): 25% world history, 25% U.S. history, 10% geography, 15% economics, 15% political science, 10% behavioral and social sciences; 120 questions'5 Minnesota Teacher Licensure Examinations: Social Studies 5-12 (Pearson Education, 2010): 16% world history, 16% U.S. and Minnesota history, 15% geography, 15% government and citizenship, 10% economics, 17% social studies skills, 10% behavioral sciences; 100 questions'5 New Mexico Teacher Assessments: History, Geography, Economics, Civics, and Government (National Evaluation Systems, 2004): history, geography and culture, economics, political science and government, social studies skills; 100 questions New York State Teacher Certification Examinations: Social Studies (National Evaluation Systems, 2006): 35% history; 15% geography; 12% economics; 16% civics, citizenship, and government; 12% social studies skills; 10% history: constructed-response assignment; 91 questions'5 Ohio Assessments for Educators: Integrated Social Studies (Pearson Education, 2013b): 25% historiography and world history, 25% U.S. history, 19% geography and culture, 19% government, 12% economics; 150 questions Oregon Educator Licensure Assessments: Social Science (Pearson Education, 2 011): 25% historiography and world history, 25% U.S. histoiy, 19% geography and culture, 19% government, 12% economics; 150 questions'5 Washington Educator Skills Tests: Social Studies (Pearson Education, 2008): 20% world history, 20% U.S. history, 16% geography, 16% civics, 12% economics, 16% social studies concepts and skills; 110 questions'5
a Numbers o f questions are approxim ate.
listed among the disciplines that constituted social studies (National Council for the Social Studies, 2010). In the C3 Framework, psychology is absent. An outstanding effort by the APA Education Directorate resulted in psychology being added as an appendix to the framework (E. Leary Chesnes, personal communication, June 7, 2013). With the social studies teaching credential required to teach psychol ogy in 34 states, relegating psychology to an appendix of the framework raises the possibility that psychology courses could be eliminated altogether from the social studies teacher preparation curricula around the nation. The C3 Framework is “designed to guide states in their efforts to upgrade their social studies standards and to inform the pedagogical approaches of social studies edu cators” (Herczog, 2013, p. 331). Consequently, states will review their credentialing requirements for social studies teachers, providing an opportunity for psychology to advo cate actively for creating a psychology credential in the 34 states that currently require the social studies credential to teach psychology courses. The foundation for advocacy efforts is the Guidelines fo r Preparing High School Psychology Teachers: CourseBased and Standards-Based Approaches (APA, 2013a). They include two approaches for preparing teachers, which align with the two primary approaches currently used by states to credential teachers: either completing a set of
September 2014 • American Psychologist
courses or meeting a set of standards. The Guidelines position the discipline to provide states with invaluable guidance when they are considering creating the psychol ogy credential. The modification of a state’s credentialing require ments occurs rarely, because the undertaking is consider able, but psychology is positioned for effective advocacy because of the following seven factors: • The National Standards fo r High School Psychol ogy Curricula • The Guidelines fo r Preparing High School Psychol ogy Teachers: Course-Based and Standards-Based Approaches • TOPSS leaders and members and other high school psychology teachers in each state • Leaders and members of state psychological asso ciations • Psychology faculty at public and private higher education institutions in each state • Other psychologists working in the public and pri vate sectors in each state • The leadership of APA, APA’s Education Direc torate (especially the Office of Precollege and Undergraduate Education), APA’s Science Direc-
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torate, and the Association for Psychological Science. Galvanizing these pieces into an informed, collabora tive, and cohesive coalition will create the basis for effec tively advocating to state education policymakers the value of high school teachers prepared to teach psychology (reg ular, Advanced Placement, and International Baccalaure ate) according to the National Standards. By monitoring agencies in the 34 states that oversee teacher credentialing, the coalition will know when the review of social studies teacher preparation requirements is planned. Thoroughly preparing coalition members about the National Standards, the Guidelines, the concerns with the social studies creden tial, and the benefits to students from the proposed psy chology credential will optimize their advocacy effective ness. “The American Psychological Association expects high school psychology teachers to have the preparation necessary to teach the course properly as specified in the National Standards fo r High School Psychology Curri cula” (APA, 2013a, p. 42). If “all psychology teachers have an ethical responsibility to ensure that accurate scientific content is presented with quality” (Ewing et al., 2010, p. 93), then earning a psychology, in contrast to a social studies, teaching credential provides such assurance. For many students, high school psychology courses are their only exposure to psychology (Keith et ah, 2013). The National Standards undergird the quality of the cur riculum; teachers must have the depth and breadth of psychology content knowledge to teach the courses effec tively. Such preparation is obtained through earning a psychology teaching credential. Psychology has worked diligently for 20 years to prepare itself to effectively advocate for establishing a psychology teaching credential as a qualification for teach ing high school psychology courses. It is time to put all the pieces together in order to do so. REFERENCES
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