J o u r n a l of Religion and Health, Vol. 25, No. 4, Winter 1986
Cosmology and Therapy C. MARGARET HALL A B S T R A C T : Sociological concepts are used to demonstrate applications of views of the cosmos to
everyday living. Optimal recovery in therapy is defined as increased participation and increased life-satisfaction in family and society, with meaningful motivation and orientation to the universe. Cosmology and therapy concepts are applied to five different kinds of marital relationships in order to clarify possibilities and define contrasts. Family processes which evolve as shifts in views of the cosmos, beliefs, and behavior occur are described. Strengths and weaknesses of this therapy are discussed, and attention is paid to ways in which beliefs provide motivation, meaning, and direction for behavior.
There are m a n y competing and conflicting theologies and cosmologies. 1 For the purpose of this study, cosmology is defined as a belief system based on a view of the universe as an orderly system characterized by complex interacting processes of energy or life-force.2 When this energy or life-force is assigned meaning through traditional religious symbols, cosmology and theology become synonymous as frames of reference for values and beliefs. It is only in relatively recent years t h a t sociological perspectives have been applied to therapy. 3 Sociological concepts redefine, broaden, and modify presenting problems in therapy. When patterns of behavior are viewed in a social context, the probability t h a t people can be more objective about their relationship with each other is increased: spouses can more easily change their perception of each other when they view self and the other as actors in society. 4 In addition to considering family influences on spouses' behavior, an examination of religion, reference groups, social class, and culture is used to consider the spouses in relation to society, and to articulate some of the broader purposes they may attribute to their daily lives. ~Individual belief systems may or m a y not appear to be directly linked to particular religious groups in society. In general, however, personal beliefs are thought of as representations of the degree to which an individual is related to social values and social structure. Spouses are encouraged to construct a model of the universe during the course of therapy, and contradictions and inconsistencies within each person's view of the cosmos are examined and discussed. The therapist directs attention to differences in the views of the cosmos of spouses, and to differences in behavior and life-styles which flow from their beliefs in these views. Exchanges between the spouses about their values are encouraged in therapy and outside the clinical setting. ~ Therapy based on sociological perspectives facilitates the construction of personal views of the cosmos. The articulation of a broad view of the universe, C. Margaret Hall, Ph.D., is Associate Professor and Chair in the D e p a r t m e n t of Sociology at Georgetown University in Washington, D.C. 254
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with the enhancement of awareness of related values and beliefs, is an import a n t step toward enabling spouses to detach from their uncomfortable dependency. 7 Therapy must necessarily be concerned with the whole person, accounting for cognitive needs of family members as well as affective needs. 8 A clinical emphasis on cognitive needs, such as the construction of cosmologies, does not result in avoidance of feelings. A cognitive focus serves as a catalyst for reducing anxiety in a family. Where a family is emotionally isolated from or unresponsive to wider society, one spouse's articulation of a view of the cosmos, together with increased participation in a variety of social groups, will stabilize or at least temporarily bring into balance an overload of anxiety? This consequence is more dramatically beneficial when both spouses articulate views of the cosmos and reorder their social behavior. A sequence of sociological concepts, which can be used to construct a model world view and view of the cosmos, is described. The concepts bridge a microsociological view of self and family interaction, and a macrosociological view of society and evolution. 1~ The concepts used derive mainly from the structural-functional tradition of sociological theory and research, 1~although the concept of class, a central concept in the conflict theory tradition of sociological theory, ~2is also used to describe some of the complexities of the relatedness between an individual, society, and evolution. The concepts of dyad and triad are based on Georg Simmel's sociological theory ~3 and Murray Bowen's family theory. TM The influence of subjective beliefs on behavior is articulated through the concepts of definition of the situation 15 and reference group. ~ More objective social influences on behavior and views of the cosmos are formulated in the concepts of class, culture, and society. The series of selected sociological concepts suggest interactive relationships between individual, society, and the universe or cosmos. The concepts bridge biography and history, and promote a deeper understanding of connectedness between personal troubles and social issues2 7 The concepts also suggest views of the cosmos where an individual is a conscious voluntaristic participant in evolutionary processes. Through articulating a broad vision of the universe in relation to their own lives, individuals can more effectively come to terms with current empirical circumstances. A broadened view promotes a reassessment of values and commitments, and suggests meaningful changes which may be made in relation to family and other social settings. 18 In order to encourage individuals to orient themselves to the outside world and to existence in the universe, the theoretical base of therapy must be extended to include social and cosmological dimensions beyond middle-range theory. ~ Individuals begin to establish their vital connectedness with social institutions, the foundation of society, by formulating their own personal values and meanings, and by moving their lives outwards toward wider society. 2~ Families are thought of as having distinctive subcultures of values. These units of interconnected values interact with the more complex pluralistic value system of wider society. Families constantly mediate social values, par-
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ents selecting specific values to transmit to their children. Patterns of family interaction are interpreted as negotiations of values. Family decisions evolve from different stages of these negotiations of values. 21 Behavior flows from the negotiations and decisions, and manifests values held by the negotiating individuals. 22 Negotiations of values reflect two different levels of self for the negotiating individuals: basic self (non-negotiable values) and pseudo self (negotiable values). 23 Accumulated negotiations of values and decisions create family subcultures. 24The values of these subcultures are sources for family cosmologies. One of the most common presenting problems in therapy is overdependence between spouses, or between parents and children. The construction of individual world views and cosmologies is used as a therapeutic tool to separate one spouse from the other, or parent from child. A therapist can facilitate separateness between overly symbiotic family members by encouraging a reestablishment of connectedness with extended family members, 2~ and by assisting spouses or parents and children to clarify their perception of self in the world and in the universe. In m a n y instances spouses do not focus on the task of getting reconnected with families of origin, or of creating a cosmology with equal degrees of motivation. However, even if only one spouse attempts to make these changes, shifts in that person's behavior and in patterns of interaction throughout the family occur.
Concepts in cosmology The following concepts can be thought of as a basis for a theoretical model of a cosmology. The use of these selected interrelated sociological concepts is demonstrated by applications to a variety of presenting problems and changing relationships in families. The sequence of concepts represents interdependencies between self and ever-expanding relationship systems in society and the universe. The concepts suggest degrees of integration between self and society or broader social processes, and degrees of perceived relationship between self and the universe. Both relatively subjective and relatively objective aspects of individual experience and social interaction are specified through these concepts in order to clarify some of the complexity of existing conflicts and contradictions between self and society. Successful clinical applications of the concepts enhance individuals' awareness of the interrelatedness of subjective and objective realities. The sociological variables most used in this theoretical schema derive mainly from the two basic social institutions of family and religion. For example, dyadic reactivity is thought of as being grounded in the social institution of family, and this context is used as a basis for interpreting m a n y patterns of behavior. The application of a broad perspective to dyadic interaction, through religion and belief systems, assists individuals to transfer their attention to positions and activities in wider society. In order for there to be an effective broadening of horizons, there must be value commitments to groups beyond
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the family. Clinical applications of this series of sociological concepts optimally result in a deintensification of the uncomfortable dependency in a dyad. The following ten sociological concepts serve as a frame of reference for constructing a cosmology or world view, which is used as a context of meaning for making changes in behavior. The concepts are microsociological and macrosociological. Self. Self is thought of as primarily a product of family programming, although one's view of the universe also influences how one sees h u m a n n a t u r e and self. A person's beliefs and ideas about self strongly influence attitudes and behavior toward others. ~6Views of the cosmos, as well as particular patterns of behavior, appear to derive directly from a person's degree of dependency in the family emotional system. ~7 Dyad. The intensity of emotional togetherness in a two-person relationship strongly influences the quality of interaction t h a t takes place between the two members of the dyad. A dyad is intrinsically precarious, as it has no transcendental identity of its own, and it ceases to exist if one person withdraws from the relationship. 28 When uncomfortable tensions arise in a dyad, a third person is predictably drawn into the twosome to lower its level of anxiety and perpetuate the relationship through a new three-person modality. ~9 Triad. A triad is the smallest stable social system, s~ Families and other groups can be analyzed and understood by conceptualizing the whole as interlocking and overlapping triads or triangles. 31 Dynamics within triads are predictable, and the concept can be applied to relationships between groups as well as to relationships between individuals. Family. Empirical data suggest t h a t a family is the most emotionally significant and meaningful primary group to which an individual can belong. Families mediate cultural values and t r a n s m i t cultural values selectively to their individual members. Family values form a basis for a shared belief system of family members. 32 Religion. Individuals and families are generally strongly influenced by the different values and belief systems in a society. Consequently, individuals and families may be characterized as conforming to or deviating from established values and beliefs. The quality of the relationship between the beliefs of individuals, families, and society may be conceptualized in terms of their relatedness to the religious institutions of a society. Religious institutions generally incorporate the most general and widely held beliefs. Owing to their comparative lack of ambiguity, traditional religious beliefs and established general beliefs have a strong impact on character, definition of responsibility, and m a n y kinds of behavior. 33 Religion centers attention on ideals and non-empirical dimensions of reality, which are important in constructing cosmologies. Definition of the situation. Subjective orientations to specific circumstances, to the world, and to the universe have significant consequences for behavior. If people believe a situation is real, those beliefs about the given conditions predictably become real in their consequences. 34 Reference Group. Subjective identification with groups to which one wants to belong, as well as with groups to which one already belongs, is another strong motivating influence in the construction of world views and cosmologies, and
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in everyday behavior2 5 Subjective identification may also be with deities, ideals, and values. Behavior t h a t generates upward social mobility is one result of motivation resulting from identification with groups to which one aspires to belong, or with the ideals one espouses. The concept of reference group clarifies the nature of individuals' subjective bonding with broader social structures and values. Class. The concept of social class suggests a more objective view of individuals' positions and life-styles in society. Membership in a particular social class is a significant determinant of interpersonal and group behavior. 3~ Membership in a particular social class implies adherence to certain values and beliefs, as well as specified income or material assets. Placement in a social class may be thought of as a more or less objective way of assessing a person's or a family's social standing and role expectations in society. Culture. Culture can be defined as a system of shared material and nonmaterial values. The dominant values of a society's culture exert a strong influence on the behavior of family members. 37 As economic development and technology progress, cultural values broaden their range and manifest extremes of traditional and established religious values to modern, primarily secular values. Society. Current social trends in the wider society affect the behavior, world views, and cosmologies of all family members. Individuals may be thought of as choosing either conformity with or resistance to historical influences in the wider society. Where boundaries between a family and society are weak or non-existent, family members may be incapable of exercising a real choice in accepting or rejecting the influence of societal trends. When boundaries are inadequate, a family loses autonomy and members react automatically to conform to social pressures. Where families have rigid, impermeable boundaries between their relationship systems and society, members tend to reject established norms through deviant behavior. This rebellion against social pressures is provoked by the isolation of these families and their lack of integration with the values and structures of mainstream society. 38 Although these selected concepts--self, dyad, triad, family, religion, definition of the situation, reference group, class, culture, and society--range only between individual and society, there are implications here for the construction of particular world views and cosmologies. It is the quality of the relationship between an individual's concepts of self, h u m a n nature, society, evolution, the universe, and God, etc., t h a t predisposes a person to act effectively or gain satisfaction from life. The selection of personal values from social sources, and the ordering of these values in the context of an individual life, society, evolution, and the universe, appear to be crucial aspects of understanding behavior, especially behavior which is considered to be meaningful.
Applications of cosmology In order to illustrate some of the uses of sociological concepts of cosmologies in therapy, applications to five contrasting examples of marital relationships are
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described. Data sources are therapy findings and research on self-concept and family processes. Applications of the sociological concepts and cosmologies depend on characteristics of presenting problems, or on existing patterns of family interaction. Four varied problematic marital relationships are presented, in addition to a material relationship which does not have identifiable behavior problems. The viable marital relationship is included in order to compare this pattern with spouses who have clearly-defined problems of over-dependency within the twosome and in other family relationships. The examples described are abstractions from case history materials rather than accurate compilations of empirical data. Viable marital relationship. This dyad has no identifiable relationship problems. Each spouse has an active orientation to the world beyond the immediate nuclear family, as well as ongoing relationships with a substantial number of members of the extended family of origin. In this relationship system there is balanced emotional investment and interaction inside and outside the family, with commitment to personal goals. In a viable marital relationship, a great deal of autonomy is exercised by each spouse in the selection of values, beliefs, work, and social activities. These patterns of behavior tend to be typical of the social class and cultural context of the spouses. Each spouse is able to articulate a world view and cosmology, which give direction and purpose to everyday activity. Overt marital conflict. In this conflictual relationship, the thrust of therapy is to move spouses away from their overdependence and over-reactivity toward involvement in relationships and activity outside the immediate nuclear faroily. Cosmologies are constructed to clarify values and define direction for each spouse. Changes in the valence and investment of emotional energy of the spouses allow each person to have more meaningful relationships with extended family members and with other social groups in the wider society. Values are articulated, clarified, and made more conscious in the therapy process of building cosmologies, and spouses become more able to derive meaningful world views from the cosmologies as bases for daily decision-making and activity. Focus on a cosmology and world view allows a spouse to become more involved in activities and relationships outside the immediate nuclear family, and conflict and tension in the marital dyad subside. Distance between spouses. This marital relationship becomes expressive and enlivened when each spouse defines self more clearly in relation to extended family and to society at large. One spouse in this relationship tends to be more passive and more adaptive than the other. The adaptive spouse needs support and direction through the construction of a meaningful cosmology before active involvement in the extended and nuclear families and in other social groups is possible. Increased participation in the larger society by both spouses reduces the anxiety in the dyad, which created and perpetuates the uncomfortable emotional distance. Dysfunction of spouse. Extreme passivity of one spouse and the dominance of the other spouse frequently results in dysfunction of the adaptive spouse. When each person clarifies values and beliefs, especially in relation to people
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outside the nuclear family, the restrictive dependence between these spouses is relaxed. Behavior is changed through an increased awareness of values and the related construction of cosmologies. To a certain extent this and other kinds of negative involvement between spouses can be effectively reduced when societal forces and trends are interpreted as contributing toward tensions felt at an interpersonal level. Conventional sex socialization frequently polarizes the relationship between spouses, producing incompatible cosmologies which may increase conflict and resentment. Values incorporated through conventional sex socialization frequently limit the potential for quality intimacy between spouses rather t h a n enhance it. Child-focused spouses. The sense of responsibility for self of each parent is strengthened when attention is paid to each spouse's role in the broader social context and in the universe of natural forces. Optimally, the focus of spouses' attention is moved away from immediate situational problems involving their dysfunctioning child, by the creation and sustenance of world views and cosmologies. Therapy and the construction of cosmologies enable spouses to become more invested in their respective personal values and world views, with the significant consequence of disengaging their problematic focus from their child. When both parents can effectively let go of their child emotionally, by increasing their involvement with people and activities outside the immediate nuclear family, the focused child becomes sufficiently free to grow and develop self. In therapy spouses are encouraged to keep their attention on their own functioning in relation to each other, and to wider society, rather t h a n on their child.
Conclusion In the last four marital relationships described, functioning improved when family members showed a willingness and active commitment to see themselves as responsible participants both inside and outside family relationships. The conscious construction of cosmologies enlarged vision and precipitated changes in behavior, and spouses were able to improve their functioning in relation to each other and in diverse social groups. The most successful therapy outcomes occurred in families where at least one spouse enlarged his or her circle of significant others by increasing the number of meaningful contacts with people outside the immediate family. Intergenerational contacts in the extended families of spouses were a significant means of modifying overdependency, distance, and dysfunctioning in the couple relationship} 9 The application of cosmologies to therapy extends a systems theory approach. 4~ The developing subdiscipline of clinical sociology also articulates some social system implications for therapy. 41 Active participation in societal processes, as well as active participation in extended families, provides a broader base of stability and support for symptomatically overloaded exchanges between spouses. Emotionally stressed marital dyads are effectively
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r e l i e v e d t h r o u g h the c o n s t r u c t i o n of cosmologies a n d world v i e w s w h i c h incorp o r a t e e a c h spouse's values. It is hoped t h a t t h e conceptual p a r a d i g m described will be useful to t h e r a pists. T h e outline f o r m used does not do j u s t i c e to t h e c o m p l e x i t y of r e l a t i o n ships t h a t exists b e t w e e n spouses, f a m i l y m e m b e r s , a n d t h e w i d e r society. T h e r a p y w i t h cosmology is still in e x p l o r a t o r y a n d e x p e r i m e n t a l s t a g e s of development. T h i s p a p e r s u g g e s t s how t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e b r o a d e s t v i e w of social processes can be used to e n a b l e overly d e p e n d e n t f a m i l y m e m b e r s to d e t a c h f r o m e a c h other. W h e n e m o t i o n a l d e t a c h m e n t occurs, each spouse e x p e r i e n c e s m o r e c o m f o r t a b l e r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h others. T h e concepts used h e r e p r o v i d e a holistic a p p r o a c h to i n d i v i d u a l a n d f a m i l y functioning. T h e t h e o r e t i c a l concerns described a r e not new, 42 b u t t h e e m p h a s i s on t h e r a p e u t i c a p p l i c a t i o n s is p i o n e e r i n g . 43 In some respects t h e model described h a s p a r a l l e l s w i t h t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y J a p a n e s e M o r i t a t h e r a p y . 44 Sociological perspectives, t o g e t h e r w i t h the c r e a t i o n of cosmologies, c a n c h a n g e t h e direction a n d b r o a d e n t h e scope of t h e r a p y . B e h a v i o r p a t t e r n s w i t h i n a f a m i l y a r e modified as a consequence of i n c r e a s e s in d e g r e e s of partici p a t i o n in g r o u p s outside t h e f a m i l y . I n t i m a t e e n e m i e s a r e m o r e l i k e l y to become friends w h e n t h e t i g h t n e s s of r e a c t i v i t y a n d o v e r d e p e n d e n c e is r e l e a s e d t h r o u g h e m p h a s e s on the c o n s t r u c t i o n of world views a n d cosmologies, w i t h rel a t e d p l a n s for action in the e x t e n d e d f a m i l y a n d in society a t large. T h e r a p y is a v a l u e - c h a n g e e n t e r p r i s e w h i c h m a y r e s u l t in i n c r e a s e d social mobility. T h e r a p y m a y also resolve s o m e of t h e i n d i v i d u a l a n d social conseq u e n c e s of a l i e n a t i o n in c o n t e m p o r a r y society: powerlessness, m e a n i n g l e s s ness, n o r m l e s s n e s s , isolation, a n d s e l f - e s t r a n g e m e n t . 45 W h e n m a r i t a l d y a d s a r e deintensified, each spouse c a n b e c o m e m o r e m e a n i n g f u l l y i n t e g r a t e d into society, 4~ as well as h a v e p u r p o s e f u l direction in t h e context of t h e u n i v e r s e . Clinical sociology is a discipline w h i c h e n h a n c e s a w a r e n e s s of t h e complexity of influences a m o n g self, society, a n d t h e u n i v e r s e . H e i g h t e n e d a w a r e n e s s of t h e s e l i n k s m a y c u m u l a t i v e l y c r e a t e a n active c o m p o n e n t of e v o l u t i o n a r y c h a n g e s of consciousness .47
References
1. A descriptive review of some of the major differences in conceptualizing the cosmos, God, and human nature can be found in Haught, John F., The Cosmic Adventure -- Science, Religion and the Quest for Purpose. New York, Paulist Press, 1984. 2. This meaning is derived from a simple dictionary definition. See Webster's Seventh New Collegiate Dictionary. Springfield, G. and C. Merriam Company, 1971. 3. Among these first applications is Glassner B., and Freedman, J.A, Clinical Sociology. New York, Longman, 1979. It is also interesting to note that in this same year American Behavioral Scientist devoted a special issue to "Clinical Sociology" (Volume 22), and that in 1982 the first issues of Clinical Sociology Review (Volume 1) was published. 4. A pioneering description of self as actor in everyday life is the symbolic interaction interpretation of Goffman, E., The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life. New York, Doubleday, 1959. 5. This sequence ofmicrosociological and macrosociological concepts is described in Hall, C. M., Individual and Society, second edition. Boonsboro, Antietam, 1981. 6. Influences of world views on clinical work are beginning to be documented. For example, see
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7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17.
18.
19. 20. 21.
22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31.
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Strunk, O., Jr., "The World View Factor in Psychotherapy," J. Religion and Health, 1979, 18, 192-196. Problem dependency in both togetherness and distance between spouses is discussed in Bowen, M., Family Therapy in Clinical Practice. New York, Aronson, 1978. Research on the influence of world view in psychotherapy demonstrates this point. See Strunk, op. cit. Hall, C.M., "Family Therapy and Emotional Process in Society." Paper presented at Nineteenth Georgetown University Symposium on Family Theory and Family Psychotherapy. Washington, D.C., November, 1982. --, Individual and Society, op. cit. For an example of this frame of reference see Parsons, T., The Structure of Social Action. Glencoe, Illinois, Free Press, 1949. A contemporary description of conflict theory is found in Dahrendorf, R., Class and Class Conflict in Industrial Society. Stanford, Stanford University Press, 1959. Wolff, K. H., trans, and ed., The Sociology ofGeorg Simmel. Glencoe, Free Press, 1950. Bowen, op. cit. The original source of this concept is found in Thomas, W. I., and Znaniecki, F., The Polish Peasant in Europe and America, second edition. New York, Knopf, 1927. A discussion of this concept appears in Merton, R. K., and Kitt, A., "Reference Groups." In Coser, L.A., and Rosenberg, B., eds., Sociological Theory. New York, Macmillan, 1969. The sociologist who first drew attention to links between biography and history in understanding the relationship between personal troubles and social issues was C. Wright Mills. For examples of Mills's work in this area, see Mills, C. W., White Collar: The American Middle Classes. New York, Oxford University Press, 1951, and The Sociological Imagination. New York, Oxford University Press, 1959. For a fuller discussion of the role of sociological concepts in articulating vision, see Lazarsfeld, P. F.; Sewell, W. H.; and Wilensky, H. L., eds., The Uses of Sociology. New York, Basic Books, 1967; and Lazarsfeld, P. F.; Pasanella, A. K.; and Rosenberg, M., eds., Continuities in the Language of Social Research. New York, Free Press, 1972. The boundaries of middle range theory are described in Merton, R. K., On Theoretical Sociology: FiveEssays Old andNew. New York, Free Press, 1967. An example of the therapeutic benefits of moving away from isolation into social connectedness is Hall, C. M., "Aging and Family Processes," J. Family Counseling, 1976, 4, 28-42. More detailed studies of negotiation behavior are Rubin, J. Z., and Brown, B. R., The Social Psychology of Bargaining and Negotiation. New York, Academic Press, 1975; Strauss, A. L., Negotiations, Contexts, Processes, and Social Order. San Francisco, Jossey-Bass, 1978; and Pruitt, D. G., Negotiation Behavior. New York, Academic Press, 1981. The ultimate act of bequest has been defined as a statement of values. See Riemer, J., and Stampfer, N., Ethical Wills. New York, Schocken, 1983. Bowen describes basic self and pseudo self in terms of non-negotiable beliefs and negotiable beliefs respectively. See Bowen, op. cir. Some of the complexities of the process of creating a family sub-culture are documented in Seltzer, W. J., and Seltzer, M. R., "Material, Myth, and Magic: A Cultural Approach to Family Process," Family Process, 1983, 22, 3-14. Hall, C. M., Woman Unliberated: Difficulties and Limitations in Changing Self. Washington, D.C., Hemisphere, 1979. Cooley, C. H., H u m a n Nature and the Social Order. New York, Schocken, 1964; and Mead. G. H., Mind, Self and Society. Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1934, were pioneering sociological theorists in their examination and conceptualization of these correlations. For specifications of the influence of emotional dependence on perception and behavior see Bowen, op. cit. A sociological discussion of this quality of precariousness can be found in Simmel's work. See Wolff, op. cit. Clinical applications of triads and the properties of dyads and triads appear as descriptions of the concept of triangle in Bowen's family theory. See Bowen, op. cit. See Caplow, T., Two Against One: Coalitions in Triads. Englewood Cliffs, Prentice Hall, 1968, for a detailed description of different patterns of interaction within triads, as well as substantiation of the hypothesis that a triad is the smallest stable social system possible. Descriptions of current theory construction in the area of interdependence of triangles within a whole can be found in Bowen, op. cit. Earlier formulations of the concept of triads include Heifer, F., "Attitudes and Cognitive Organization," J. Psychology, 1946, 21, 107-112; and Firth, R.; Hubert, J.; and Forge, A., Families and Their Relatives. London, Routledge and K. Paul, 1969.
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32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41.
42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47.
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For an interpretation of data on families as sub-cultures see Hall, Individual and Society, op. cit. Gerth, H. H., and Mills, C. W., Character and Social Structure: The Psychology of Social Institutions. New York, Harcourt, Brace, 1953, specifies some of the influences of social institutions on individual character. Thomas and Znaniecki, op. cir. Merton and Kitt, op. cir. For detailed discussion of social class, status, power, and interest groups see Bendix, R., and Lipset, S. M., eds., Class, Status andPower, second edition. New York, Free Press, 1966, and Dahrendorf, op. cit. Documentation of the importance of values in human activity can be found in Kluckhohn, C., "Values and Value-orientation in the Theory of Action." In Parsons, T., and Shils, E. A., eds., Toward A General Theory of Action. Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1951. Hall, "Family Therapy and Emotional Process in Society," op. cit. - - , "Aging and Family Processes," op. cir. For a variety of applications of a systems approach to therapy, see Hall, C. M., The Bowen Family Theory and lts Uses. New York, Aronson, 1981. Basic references in the study of social systems and human behavior are Bertalanffy, von L., General Systems Theory: Foundations, Development, Applications. New York, Braziller, 1968; and Buckley, W. F., ed., Modern Systems Research for the Behavioral Scientist: A Source Book. Chicago, Aldine, 1968. See Parsons, T., and Bales, R. F., Family, Socialization and Interaction Process. New York, Free Press, 1955. Fritz, J., ed., Clinical Sociological Review, 1982, 1, 3-122; Glassner and Freedman, op. cit; Straus, op. cit. For a brief summary of this contribution see Stein, B. J., "And Now, Japanese Therapy," Washington Post, April 2, 1983, A 15. A full description of these dimensions of alienation is given in Seeman, M., "On the Meaning of Alienation," Amer. Sociological Review, 1959, 24, 783-791. A pioneering reference which describes social integration through individual beliefs is Durkheim, E., The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life. New York, Free Press, 1915. Evolutionary changes in the sphere of consciousness in human experience are discussed in Teilhard de Chardin, P., The Phenomenon of Man. New York, Harper and Row, 1965.
Cosmology and Therapy C. MARGARET HALL A B S T R A C T : Sociological concepts are used to demonstrate applications of views of the cosmos to
everyday living. Optimal recovery in therapy is defined as increased participation and increased life-satisfaction in family and society, with meaningful motivation and orientation to the universe. Cosmology and therapy concepts are applied to five different kinds of marital relationships in order to clarify possibilities and define contrasts. Family processes which evolve as shifts in views of the cosmos, beliefs, and behavior occur are described. Strengths and weaknesses of this therapy are discussed, and attention is paid to ways in which beliefs provide motivation, meaning, and direction for behavior.
There are m a n y competing and conflicting theologies and cosmologies. 1 For the purpose of this study, cosmology is defined as a belief system based on a view of the universe as an orderly system characterized by complex interacting processes of energy or life-force.2 When this energy or life-force is assigned meaning through traditional religious symbols, cosmology and theology become synonymous as frames of reference for values and beliefs. It is only in relatively recent years t h a t sociological perspectives have been applied to therapy. 3 Sociological concepts redefine, broaden, and modify presenting problems in therapy. When patterns of behavior are viewed in a social context, the probability t h a t people can be more objective about their relationship with each other is increased: spouses can more easily change their perception of each other when they view self and the other as actors in society. 4 In addition to considering family influences on spouses' behavior, an examination of religion, reference groups, social class, and culture is used to consider the spouses in relation to society, and to articulate some of the broader purposes they may attribute to their daily lives. ~Individual belief systems may or m a y not appear to be directly linked to particular religious groups in society. In general, however, personal beliefs are thought of as representations of the degree to which an individual is related to social values and social structure. Spouses are encouraged to construct a model of the universe during the course of therapy, and contradictions and inconsistencies within each person's view of the cosmos are examined and discussed. The therapist directs attention to differences in the views of the cosmos of spouses, and to differences in behavior and life-styles which flow from their beliefs in these views. Exchanges between the spouses about their values are encouraged in therapy and outside the clinical setting. ~ Therapy based on sociological perspectives facilitates the construction of personal views of the cosmos. The articulation of a broad view of the universe, C. Margaret Hall, Ph.D., is Associate Professor and Chair in the D e p a r t m e n t of Sociology at Georgetown University in Washington, D.C. 254
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with the enhancement of awareness of related values and beliefs, is an import a n t step toward enabling spouses to detach from their uncomfortable dependency. 7 Therapy must necessarily be concerned with the whole person, accounting for cognitive needs of family members as well as affective needs. 8 A clinical emphasis on cognitive needs, such as the construction of cosmologies, does not result in avoidance of feelings. A cognitive focus serves as a catalyst for reducing anxiety in a family. Where a family is emotionally isolated from or unresponsive to wider society, one spouse's articulation of a view of the cosmos, together with increased participation in a variety of social groups, will stabilize or at least temporarily bring into balance an overload of anxiety? This consequence is more dramatically beneficial when both spouses articulate views of the cosmos and reorder their social behavior. A sequence of sociological concepts, which can be used to construct a model world view and view of the cosmos, is described. The concepts bridge a microsociological view of self and family interaction, and a macrosociological view of society and evolution. 1~ The concepts used derive mainly from the structural-functional tradition of sociological theory and research, 1~although the concept of class, a central concept in the conflict theory tradition of sociological theory, ~2is also used to describe some of the complexities of the relatedness between an individual, society, and evolution. The concepts of dyad and triad are based on Georg Simmel's sociological theory ~3 and Murray Bowen's family theory. TM The influence of subjective beliefs on behavior is articulated through the concepts of definition of the situation 15 and reference group. ~ More objective social influences on behavior and views of the cosmos are formulated in the concepts of class, culture, and society. The series of selected sociological concepts suggest interactive relationships between individual, society, and the universe or cosmos. The concepts bridge biography and history, and promote a deeper understanding of connectedness between personal troubles and social issues2 7 The concepts also suggest views of the cosmos where an individual is a conscious voluntaristic participant in evolutionary processes. Through articulating a broad vision of the universe in relation to their own lives, individuals can more effectively come to terms with current empirical circumstances. A broadened view promotes a reassessment of values and commitments, and suggests meaningful changes which may be made in relation to family and other social settings. 18 In order to encourage individuals to orient themselves to the outside world and to existence in the universe, the theoretical base of therapy must be extended to include social and cosmological dimensions beyond middle-range theory. ~ Individuals begin to establish their vital connectedness with social institutions, the foundation of society, by formulating their own personal values and meanings, and by moving their lives outwards toward wider society. 2~ Families are thought of as having distinctive subcultures of values. These units of interconnected values interact with the more complex pluralistic value system of wider society. Families constantly mediate social values, par-
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ents selecting specific values to transmit to their children. Patterns of family interaction are interpreted as negotiations of values. Family decisions evolve from different stages of these negotiations of values. 21 Behavior flows from the negotiations and decisions, and manifests values held by the negotiating individuals. 22 Negotiations of values reflect two different levels of self for the negotiating individuals: basic self (non-negotiable values) and pseudo self (negotiable values). 23 Accumulated negotiations of values and decisions create family subcultures. 24The values of these subcultures are sources for family cosmologies. One of the most common presenting problems in therapy is overdependence between spouses, or between parents and children. The construction of individual world views and cosmologies is used as a therapeutic tool to separate one spouse from the other, or parent from child. A therapist can facilitate separateness between overly symbiotic family members by encouraging a reestablishment of connectedness with extended family members, 2~ and by assisting spouses or parents and children to clarify their perception of self in the world and in the universe. In m a n y instances spouses do not focus on the task of getting reconnected with families of origin, or of creating a cosmology with equal degrees of motivation. However, even if only one spouse attempts to make these changes, shifts in that person's behavior and in patterns of interaction throughout the family occur.
Concepts in cosmology The following concepts can be thought of as a basis for a theoretical model of a cosmology. The use of these selected interrelated sociological concepts is demonstrated by applications to a variety of presenting problems and changing relationships in families. The sequence of concepts represents interdependencies between self and ever-expanding relationship systems in society and the universe. The concepts suggest degrees of integration between self and society or broader social processes, and degrees of perceived relationship between self and the universe. Both relatively subjective and relatively objective aspects of individual experience and social interaction are specified through these concepts in order to clarify some of the complexity of existing conflicts and contradictions between self and society. Successful clinical applications of the concepts enhance individuals' awareness of the interrelatedness of subjective and objective realities. The sociological variables most used in this theoretical schema derive mainly from the two basic social institutions of family and religion. For example, dyadic reactivity is thought of as being grounded in the social institution of family, and this context is used as a basis for interpreting m a n y patterns of behavior. The application of a broad perspective to dyadic interaction, through religion and belief systems, assists individuals to transfer their attention to positions and activities in wider society. In order for there to be an effective broadening of horizons, there must be value commitments to groups beyond
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the family. Clinical applications of this series of sociological concepts optimally result in a deintensification of the uncomfortable dependency in a dyad. The following ten sociological concepts serve as a frame of reference for constructing a cosmology or world view, which is used as a context of meaning for making changes in behavior. The concepts are microsociological and macrosociological. Self. Self is thought of as primarily a product of family programming, although one's view of the universe also influences how one sees h u m a n n a t u r e and self. A person's beliefs and ideas about self strongly influence attitudes and behavior toward others. ~6Views of the cosmos, as well as particular patterns of behavior, appear to derive directly from a person's degree of dependency in the family emotional system. ~7 Dyad. The intensity of emotional togetherness in a two-person relationship strongly influences the quality of interaction t h a t takes place between the two members of the dyad. A dyad is intrinsically precarious, as it has no transcendental identity of its own, and it ceases to exist if one person withdraws from the relationship. 28 When uncomfortable tensions arise in a dyad, a third person is predictably drawn into the twosome to lower its level of anxiety and perpetuate the relationship through a new three-person modality. ~9 Triad. A triad is the smallest stable social system, s~ Families and other groups can be analyzed and understood by conceptualizing the whole as interlocking and overlapping triads or triangles. 31 Dynamics within triads are predictable, and the concept can be applied to relationships between groups as well as to relationships between individuals. Family. Empirical data suggest t h a t a family is the most emotionally significant and meaningful primary group to which an individual can belong. Families mediate cultural values and t r a n s m i t cultural values selectively to their individual members. Family values form a basis for a shared belief system of family members. 32 Religion. Individuals and families are generally strongly influenced by the different values and belief systems in a society. Consequently, individuals and families may be characterized as conforming to or deviating from established values and beliefs. The quality of the relationship between the beliefs of individuals, families, and society may be conceptualized in terms of their relatedness to the religious institutions of a society. Religious institutions generally incorporate the most general and widely held beliefs. Owing to their comparative lack of ambiguity, traditional religious beliefs and established general beliefs have a strong impact on character, definition of responsibility, and m a n y kinds of behavior. 33 Religion centers attention on ideals and non-empirical dimensions of reality, which are important in constructing cosmologies. Definition of the situation. Subjective orientations to specific circumstances, to the world, and to the universe have significant consequences for behavior. If people believe a situation is real, those beliefs about the given conditions predictably become real in their consequences. 34 Reference Group. Subjective identification with groups to which one wants to belong, as well as with groups to which one already belongs, is another strong motivating influence in the construction of world views and cosmologies, and
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in everyday behavior2 5 Subjective identification may also be with deities, ideals, and values. Behavior t h a t generates upward social mobility is one result of motivation resulting from identification with groups to which one aspires to belong, or with the ideals one espouses. The concept of reference group clarifies the nature of individuals' subjective bonding with broader social structures and values. Class. The concept of social class suggests a more objective view of individuals' positions and life-styles in society. Membership in a particular social class is a significant determinant of interpersonal and group behavior. 3~ Membership in a particular social class implies adherence to certain values and beliefs, as well as specified income or material assets. Placement in a social class may be thought of as a more or less objective way of assessing a person's or a family's social standing and role expectations in society. Culture. Culture can be defined as a system of shared material and nonmaterial values. The dominant values of a society's culture exert a strong influence on the behavior of family members. 37 As economic development and technology progress, cultural values broaden their range and manifest extremes of traditional and established religious values to modern, primarily secular values. Society. Current social trends in the wider society affect the behavior, world views, and cosmologies of all family members. Individuals may be thought of as choosing either conformity with or resistance to historical influences in the wider society. Where boundaries between a family and society are weak or non-existent, family members may be incapable of exercising a real choice in accepting or rejecting the influence of societal trends. When boundaries are inadequate, a family loses autonomy and members react automatically to conform to social pressures. Where families have rigid, impermeable boundaries between their relationship systems and society, members tend to reject established norms through deviant behavior. This rebellion against social pressures is provoked by the isolation of these families and their lack of integration with the values and structures of mainstream society. 38 Although these selected concepts--self, dyad, triad, family, religion, definition of the situation, reference group, class, culture, and society--range only between individual and society, there are implications here for the construction of particular world views and cosmologies. It is the quality of the relationship between an individual's concepts of self, h u m a n nature, society, evolution, the universe, and God, etc., t h a t predisposes a person to act effectively or gain satisfaction from life. The selection of personal values from social sources, and the ordering of these values in the context of an individual life, society, evolution, and the universe, appear to be crucial aspects of understanding behavior, especially behavior which is considered to be meaningful.
Applications of cosmology In order to illustrate some of the uses of sociological concepts of cosmologies in therapy, applications to five contrasting examples of marital relationships are
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described. Data sources are therapy findings and research on self-concept and family processes. Applications of the sociological concepts and cosmologies depend on characteristics of presenting problems, or on existing patterns of family interaction. Four varied problematic marital relationships are presented, in addition to a material relationship which does not have identifiable behavior problems. The viable marital relationship is included in order to compare this pattern with spouses who have clearly-defined problems of over-dependency within the twosome and in other family relationships. The examples described are abstractions from case history materials rather than accurate compilations of empirical data. Viable marital relationship. This dyad has no identifiable relationship problems. Each spouse has an active orientation to the world beyond the immediate nuclear family, as well as ongoing relationships with a substantial number of members of the extended family of origin. In this relationship system there is balanced emotional investment and interaction inside and outside the family, with commitment to personal goals. In a viable marital relationship, a great deal of autonomy is exercised by each spouse in the selection of values, beliefs, work, and social activities. These patterns of behavior tend to be typical of the social class and cultural context of the spouses. Each spouse is able to articulate a world view and cosmology, which give direction and purpose to everyday activity. Overt marital conflict. In this conflictual relationship, the thrust of therapy is to move spouses away from their overdependence and over-reactivity toward involvement in relationships and activity outside the immediate nuclear faroily. Cosmologies are constructed to clarify values and define direction for each spouse. Changes in the valence and investment of emotional energy of the spouses allow each person to have more meaningful relationships with extended family members and with other social groups in the wider society. Values are articulated, clarified, and made more conscious in the therapy process of building cosmologies, and spouses become more able to derive meaningful world views from the cosmologies as bases for daily decision-making and activity. Focus on a cosmology and world view allows a spouse to become more involved in activities and relationships outside the immediate nuclear family, and conflict and tension in the marital dyad subside. Distance between spouses. This marital relationship becomes expressive and enlivened when each spouse defines self more clearly in relation to extended family and to society at large. One spouse in this relationship tends to be more passive and more adaptive than the other. The adaptive spouse needs support and direction through the construction of a meaningful cosmology before active involvement in the extended and nuclear families and in other social groups is possible. Increased participation in the larger society by both spouses reduces the anxiety in the dyad, which created and perpetuates the uncomfortable emotional distance. Dysfunction of spouse. Extreme passivity of one spouse and the dominance of the other spouse frequently results in dysfunction of the adaptive spouse. When each person clarifies values and beliefs, especially in relation to people
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outside the nuclear family, the restrictive dependence between these spouses is relaxed. Behavior is changed through an increased awareness of values and the related construction of cosmologies. To a certain extent this and other kinds of negative involvement between spouses can be effectively reduced when societal forces and trends are interpreted as contributing toward tensions felt at an interpersonal level. Conventional sex socialization frequently polarizes the relationship between spouses, producing incompatible cosmologies which may increase conflict and resentment. Values incorporated through conventional sex socialization frequently limit the potential for quality intimacy between spouses rather t h a n enhance it. Child-focused spouses. The sense of responsibility for self of each parent is strengthened when attention is paid to each spouse's role in the broader social context and in the universe of natural forces. Optimally, the focus of spouses' attention is moved away from immediate situational problems involving their dysfunctioning child, by the creation and sustenance of world views and cosmologies. Therapy and the construction of cosmologies enable spouses to become more invested in their respective personal values and world views, with the significant consequence of disengaging their problematic focus from their child. When both parents can effectively let go of their child emotionally, by increasing their involvement with people and activities outside the immediate nuclear family, the focused child becomes sufficiently free to grow and develop self. In therapy spouses are encouraged to keep their attention on their own functioning in relation to each other, and to wider society, rather t h a n on their child.
Conclusion In the last four marital relationships described, functioning improved when family members showed a willingness and active commitment to see themselves as responsible participants both inside and outside family relationships. The conscious construction of cosmologies enlarged vision and precipitated changes in behavior, and spouses were able to improve their functioning in relation to each other and in diverse social groups. The most successful therapy outcomes occurred in families where at least one spouse enlarged his or her circle of significant others by increasing the number of meaningful contacts with people outside the immediate family. Intergenerational contacts in the extended families of spouses were a significant means of modifying overdependency, distance, and dysfunctioning in the couple relationship} 9 The application of cosmologies to therapy extends a systems theory approach. 4~ The developing subdiscipline of clinical sociology also articulates some social system implications for therapy. 41 Active participation in societal processes, as well as active participation in extended families, provides a broader base of stability and support for symptomatically overloaded exchanges between spouses. Emotionally stressed marital dyads are effectively
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r e l i e v e d t h r o u g h the c o n s t r u c t i o n of cosmologies a n d world v i e w s w h i c h incorp o r a t e e a c h spouse's values. It is hoped t h a t t h e conceptual p a r a d i g m described will be useful to t h e r a pists. T h e outline f o r m used does not do j u s t i c e to t h e c o m p l e x i t y of r e l a t i o n ships t h a t exists b e t w e e n spouses, f a m i l y m e m b e r s , a n d t h e w i d e r society. T h e r a p y w i t h cosmology is still in e x p l o r a t o r y a n d e x p e r i m e n t a l s t a g e s of development. T h i s p a p e r s u g g e s t s how t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e b r o a d e s t v i e w of social processes can be used to e n a b l e overly d e p e n d e n t f a m i l y m e m b e r s to d e t a c h f r o m e a c h other. W h e n e m o t i o n a l d e t a c h m e n t occurs, each spouse e x p e r i e n c e s m o r e c o m f o r t a b l e r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h others. T h e concepts used h e r e p r o v i d e a holistic a p p r o a c h to i n d i v i d u a l a n d f a m i l y functioning. T h e t h e o r e t i c a l concerns described a r e not new, 42 b u t t h e e m p h a s i s on t h e r a p e u t i c a p p l i c a t i o n s is p i o n e e r i n g . 43 In some respects t h e model described h a s p a r a l l e l s w i t h t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y J a p a n e s e M o r i t a t h e r a p y . 44 Sociological perspectives, t o g e t h e r w i t h the c r e a t i o n of cosmologies, c a n c h a n g e t h e direction a n d b r o a d e n t h e scope of t h e r a p y . B e h a v i o r p a t t e r n s w i t h i n a f a m i l y a r e modified as a consequence of i n c r e a s e s in d e g r e e s of partici p a t i o n in g r o u p s outside t h e f a m i l y . I n t i m a t e e n e m i e s a r e m o r e l i k e l y to become friends w h e n t h e t i g h t n e s s of r e a c t i v i t y a n d o v e r d e p e n d e n c e is r e l e a s e d t h r o u g h e m p h a s e s on the c o n s t r u c t i o n of world views a n d cosmologies, w i t h rel a t e d p l a n s for action in the e x t e n d e d f a m i l y a n d in society a t large. T h e r a p y is a v a l u e - c h a n g e e n t e r p r i s e w h i c h m a y r e s u l t in i n c r e a s e d social mobility. T h e r a p y m a y also resolve s o m e of t h e i n d i v i d u a l a n d social conseq u e n c e s of a l i e n a t i o n in c o n t e m p o r a r y society: powerlessness, m e a n i n g l e s s ness, n o r m l e s s n e s s , isolation, a n d s e l f - e s t r a n g e m e n t . 45 W h e n m a r i t a l d y a d s a r e deintensified, each spouse c a n b e c o m e m o r e m e a n i n g f u l l y i n t e g r a t e d into society, 4~ as well as h a v e p u r p o s e f u l direction in t h e context of t h e u n i v e r s e . Clinical sociology is a discipline w h i c h e n h a n c e s a w a r e n e s s of t h e complexity of influences a m o n g self, society, a n d t h e u n i v e r s e . H e i g h t e n e d a w a r e n e s s of t h e s e l i n k s m a y c u m u l a t i v e l y c r e a t e a n active c o m p o n e n t of e v o l u t i o n a r y c h a n g e s of consciousness .47
References
1. A descriptive review of some of the major differences in conceptualizing the cosmos, God, and human nature can be found in Haught, John F., The Cosmic Adventure -- Science, Religion and the Quest for Purpose. New York, Paulist Press, 1984. 2. This meaning is derived from a simple dictionary definition. See Webster's Seventh New Collegiate Dictionary. Springfield, G. and C. Merriam Company, 1971. 3. Among these first applications is Glassner B., and Freedman, J.A, Clinical Sociology. New York, Longman, 1979. It is also interesting to note that in this same year American Behavioral Scientist devoted a special issue to "Clinical Sociology" (Volume 22), and that in 1982 the first issues of Clinical Sociology Review (Volume 1) was published. 4. A pioneering description of self as actor in everyday life is the symbolic interaction interpretation of Goffman, E., The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life. New York, Doubleday, 1959. 5. This sequence ofmicrosociological and macrosociological concepts is described in Hall, C. M., Individual and Society, second edition. Boonsboro, Antietam, 1981. 6. Influences of world views on clinical work are beginning to be documented. For example, see
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7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17.
18.
19. 20. 21.
22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31.
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Strunk, O., Jr., "The World View Factor in Psychotherapy," J. Religion and Health, 1979, 18, 192-196. Problem dependency in both togetherness and distance between spouses is discussed in Bowen, M., Family Therapy in Clinical Practice. New York, Aronson, 1978. Research on the influence of world view in psychotherapy demonstrates this point. See Strunk, op. cit. Hall, C.M., "Family Therapy and Emotional Process in Society." Paper presented at Nineteenth Georgetown University Symposium on Family Theory and Family Psychotherapy. Washington, D.C., November, 1982. --, Individual and Society, op. cit. For an example of this frame of reference see Parsons, T., The Structure of Social Action. Glencoe, Illinois, Free Press, 1949. A contemporary description of conflict theory is found in Dahrendorf, R., Class and Class Conflict in Industrial Society. Stanford, Stanford University Press, 1959. Wolff, K. H., trans, and ed., The Sociology ofGeorg Simmel. Glencoe, Free Press, 1950. Bowen, op. cit. The original source of this concept is found in Thomas, W. I., and Znaniecki, F., The Polish Peasant in Europe and America, second edition. New York, Knopf, 1927. A discussion of this concept appears in Merton, R. K., and Kitt, A., "Reference Groups." In Coser, L.A., and Rosenberg, B., eds., Sociological Theory. New York, Macmillan, 1969. The sociologist who first drew attention to links between biography and history in understanding the relationship between personal troubles and social issues was C. Wright Mills. For examples of Mills's work in this area, see Mills, C. W., White Collar: The American Middle Classes. New York, Oxford University Press, 1951, and The Sociological Imagination. New York, Oxford University Press, 1959. For a fuller discussion of the role of sociological concepts in articulating vision, see Lazarsfeld, P. F.; Sewell, W. H.; and Wilensky, H. L., eds., The Uses of Sociology. New York, Basic Books, 1967; and Lazarsfeld, P. F.; Pasanella, A. K.; and Rosenberg, M., eds., Continuities in the Language of Social Research. New York, Free Press, 1972. The boundaries of middle range theory are described in Merton, R. K., On Theoretical Sociology: FiveEssays Old andNew. New York, Free Press, 1967. An example of the therapeutic benefits of moving away from isolation into social connectedness is Hall, C. M., "Aging and Family Processes," J. Family Counseling, 1976, 4, 28-42. More detailed studies of negotiation behavior are Rubin, J. Z., and Brown, B. R., The Social Psychology of Bargaining and Negotiation. New York, Academic Press, 1975; Strauss, A. L., Negotiations, Contexts, Processes, and Social Order. San Francisco, Jossey-Bass, 1978; and Pruitt, D. G., Negotiation Behavior. New York, Academic Press, 1981. The ultimate act of bequest has been defined as a statement of values. See Riemer, J., and Stampfer, N., Ethical Wills. New York, Schocken, 1983. Bowen describes basic self and pseudo self in terms of non-negotiable beliefs and negotiable beliefs respectively. See Bowen, op. cir. Some of the complexities of the process of creating a family sub-culture are documented in Seltzer, W. J., and Seltzer, M. R., "Material, Myth, and Magic: A Cultural Approach to Family Process," Family Process, 1983, 22, 3-14. Hall, C. M., Woman Unliberated: Difficulties and Limitations in Changing Self. Washington, D.C., Hemisphere, 1979. Cooley, C. H., H u m a n Nature and the Social Order. New York, Schocken, 1964; and Mead. G. H., Mind, Self and Society. Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1934, were pioneering sociological theorists in their examination and conceptualization of these correlations. For specifications of the influence of emotional dependence on perception and behavior see Bowen, op. cit. A sociological discussion of this quality of precariousness can be found in Simmel's work. See Wolff, op. cit. Clinical applications of triads and the properties of dyads and triads appear as descriptions of the concept of triangle in Bowen's family theory. See Bowen, op. cit. See Caplow, T., Two Against One: Coalitions in Triads. Englewood Cliffs, Prentice Hall, 1968, for a detailed description of different patterns of interaction within triads, as well as substantiation of the hypothesis that a triad is the smallest stable social system possible. Descriptions of current theory construction in the area of interdependence of triangles within a whole can be found in Bowen, op. cit. Earlier formulations of the concept of triads include Heifer, F., "Attitudes and Cognitive Organization," J. Psychology, 1946, 21, 107-112; and Firth, R.; Hubert, J.; and Forge, A., Families and Their Relatives. London, Routledge and K. Paul, 1969.
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32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41.
42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47.
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For an interpretation of data on families as sub-cultures see Hall, Individual and Society, op. cit. Gerth, H. H., and Mills, C. W., Character and Social Structure: The Psychology of Social Institutions. New York, Harcourt, Brace, 1953, specifies some of the influences of social institutions on individual character. Thomas and Znaniecki, op. cir. Merton and Kitt, op. cir. For detailed discussion of social class, status, power, and interest groups see Bendix, R., and Lipset, S. M., eds., Class, Status andPower, second edition. New York, Free Press, 1966, and Dahrendorf, op. cit. Documentation of the importance of values in human activity can be found in Kluckhohn, C., "Values and Value-orientation in the Theory of Action." In Parsons, T., and Shils, E. A., eds., Toward A General Theory of Action. Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1951. Hall, "Family Therapy and Emotional Process in Society," op. cit. - - , "Aging and Family Processes," op. cir. For a variety of applications of a systems approach to therapy, see Hall, C. M., The Bowen Family Theory and lts Uses. New York, Aronson, 1981. Basic references in the study of social systems and human behavior are Bertalanffy, von L., General Systems Theory: Foundations, Development, Applications. New York, Braziller, 1968; and Buckley, W. F., ed., Modern Systems Research for the Behavioral Scientist: A Source Book. Chicago, Aldine, 1968. See Parsons, T., and Bales, R. F., Family, Socialization and Interaction Process. New York, Free Press, 1955. Fritz, J., ed., Clinical Sociological Review, 1982, 1, 3-122; Glassner and Freedman, op. cit; Straus, op. cit. For a brief summary of this contribution see Stein, B. J., "And Now, Japanese Therapy," Washington Post, April 2, 1983, A 15. A full description of these dimensions of alienation is given in Seeman, M., "On the Meaning of Alienation," Amer. Sociological Review, 1959, 24, 783-791. A pioneering reference which describes social integration through individual beliefs is Durkheim, E., The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life. New York, Free Press, 1915. Evolutionary changes in the sphere of consciousness in human experience are discussed in Teilhard de Chardin, P., The Phenomenon of Man. New York, Harper and Row, 1965.
