Child Abuse & Neglect 38 (2014) 336–346

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Child Abuse & Neglect

Correlates of emotional congruence with children in sexual offenders against children: A test of theoretical models in an incarcerated sample Ian V. McPhail a,∗ , Chantal A. Hermann b , Yolanda M. Fernandez c a b c

Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, Forensic Service, 1001 Queen Street West, Toronto, Ontario, Canada M6J 1H4 Carleton University, Department of Psychology, A403 Loeb, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada K1S 5B6 Correctional Service of Canada, Kingston Penitentiary, 560 King Street West, Kingston, Ontario, Canada K7L 4V7

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history: Received 11 June 2013 Received in revised form 21 September 2013 Accepted 3 October 2013 Available online 7 November 2013

Keywords: Emotional congruence with children Sexual offenders against children Psychologically meaningful risk factors Sexual deviance Blockage

a b s t r a c t Emotional congruence with children is a psychological construct theoretically involved in the etiology and maintenance of sexual offending against children. Research conducted to date has not examined the relationship between emotional congruence with children and other psychological meaningful risk factors for sexual offending against children. The current study derived potential correlates of emotional congruence with children from the published literature and proposed three models of emotional congruence with children that contain relatively unique sets of correlates: the blockage, sexual deviance, and psychological immaturity models. Using Area under the Curve analysis, we assessed the relationship between emotional congruence with children and offense characteristics, victim demographics, and psychologically meaningful risk factors in a sample of incarcerated sexual offenders against children (n = 221). The sexual deviance model received the most support: emotional congruence with children was significantly associated with deviant sexual interests, sexual self-regulation problems, and cognition that condones and supports child molestation. The blockage model received partial support, and the immaturity model received the least support. Based on the results, we propose a set of further predictions regarding the relationships between emotional congruence with children and other psychologically meaningful risk factors to be examined in future research. © 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Introduction In the general forensic psychology and sexual offender treatment literature it is clear that in order to provide effective intervention and prevention strategies to reduce sexual violence against children we need to identify and understand risk factors for sexual aggression (Andrews & Bonta, 2010; Hanson, Bourgon, Helmus, & Hodgson, 2009). One such risk factor is emotional congruence with children. Emotional congruence with children is generally defined as an exaggerated cognitive and emotional affiliation with childhood and children (Finkelhor, 1984; Mann, Hanson, & Thornton, 2010; Wilson, 1999). The construct describes individuals whose emotional attachment and dependency needs are more likely met by interacting with children. Sexual offenders against children who exhibit high levels of emotional congruence with children may seek child-oriented employment (Knight, 1988), report having children as friends (Fernandez, Harris, Hanson, & Sparks, 2012), or

∗ Corresponding author address: Forensic Services, Complex Mental Illness Program, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, 1001 Queen Street West, Toronto, Ontario, Canada, M6J 1H4. E-mail address: [email protected] (I.V. McPhail). 0145-2134/$ – see front matter © 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2013.10.002

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report being in love with their child victims (Li, 1990). Meta-analytic research has found high levels of emotional congruence with children is often reported by extrafamilial offenders with male victims, that treatment can significantly reduce levels of emotional congruence with children for extrafamilial offenders (d = .41, 95% CI [.33, .49], k = 5; McPhail, Hermann, & Nunes, 2013), and that emotional congruence with children is associated with sexual recidivism (d = .39, 95% CI [.21, .57], k = 8; McPhail et al., 2013). Consequently, emotional congruence with children is an important target for research and applied work in child sexual abuse prevention, sex offender risk assessment, and treatment programs aimed at reducing sexual recidivism. Theorists contend that multiple risk factors are likely necessary to motivate an individual to sexually abuse a child (Beech & Ward, 2004) likely because of the modest influence single risk factors have on offending behavior (Agnew, 2013). Most research on emotional congruence with children has examined this construct in isolation, mainly in attempts to establish its predictive or discriminative validity (McPhail et al., 2013; Wilson, 1999). As a result, there is a lack of empirical research examining the offense-related and psychological risk factors that are associated with emotional congruence with children. The current paper identifies three models in the existent literature that suggest emotional congruence with children is associated with a variety of correlates relevant to sexual offending. In this exploratory research, we assess the strength of the associations between emotional congruence with children and possible correlates derived from the existent literature. We have used the term model loosely to denote a relatively unique set of bivariate relationships between emotional congruence with children and other risk factors arising from our understanding of the relevant theoretical and empirical literature. Models of emotional congruence with children Theories of sexual offending against children, clinical research, and typologies examining sexual offenders’ motivations for offending often describe the nature of the relationship between child victims and offenders, specific offender behaviors, and offenders’ psychological motivations that are consistent with the conceptualization of emotional congruence with children. A striking feature of the clinical, theoretical, and typological literature is that emotional congruence with children is not often described in isolation from other risk factors relevant to sexual offending against children. These descriptions include assumptions regarding the interrelationships between psychological constructs contributing to sexual offending (Knight & King, 2012), with certain theorists and researchers emphasizing different, yet sometimes overlapping, sets of risk factors being associated with emotional congruence with children. Using a deductive strategy, we have reviewed this literature and identified a set of risk factors that may be associated with emotional congruence with children and have constructed three models of emotional congruence with children, the blockage, sexual deviance, and psychological immaturity models. The blockage model of emotional congruence with children Finkelhor (1984) suggests that for certain sex offenders, being blocked from satisfying intimate relationships with adults is associated with finding children less threatening, easier to spend time with relative to adults, and more attractive as sexual partners. It is also suggested that blockage from adult relationships is the product of a fear of these relationships and a lack of social skills or interpersonal competence (Araji & Finkelhor, 1985; Fisher, 1969; Mohr, Turner, & Jerry, 1964). Sexual offenders against children may perceive adults as domineering, cold, and dangerous authority figures, whereas children are perceived as welcoming, warm, and affectionate (Finkelhor, 1984; Howells, 1979). In addition, Howells (1994) suggests that the blockage factor overlaps conceptually with the emotional congruence factor in Finkelhor’s Preconditions Model. Based on these authors’ works, emotional congruence with children may be expected to co-occur with difficulties in establishing and maintaining intimate relationships and friendships with same-aged peers. A lack of social and intimate relationships likely begins in adolescence and may result in emotional loneliness and social isolation (Finkelhor & Araji, 1986; Fisher & Howells, 1993; Hammer & Glueck, 1957; Marshall, 1989, 1993). Because of the lack of adult relationships, these individuals may spend much of their social life engaged in activities with children (Mohr et al., 1964). In support of this notion, Pacht and Cowden (1974) provide evidence that those with immature child victims were rated as less socially assertive when compared to rapists. These authors speculate that an inability to form adult relationships is associated with establishing positive relationships with child victims. Other research has shown extrafamilial sexual offenders against children who score high in emotional congruence with children also report low self-esteem, experience social isolation, and have a history of intimacy failures in adult relationships (Beckett, Beech, Fisher, & Fordham, 1994). Consistent with this model, certain theoretical work indicates that poor childhood attachments may contribute to emotional loneliness and chronic blockage from peer and intimate relationships. Marshall (1993) and Ward, Hudson, Marshall, and Seigert (1995) suggests that poor quality attachments in childhood leave a male ill-equipped, throughout his life, to develop relationships with his peers and relate easily to others, thus resulting in alienation from others and unmet intimacy needs even though the male desires intimacy. Persistent intimacy deficits, chronic loneliness, and the desire to achieve intimacy contribute to seeking a partner that is approving and can be controlled to minimize rejection (Marshall, 1989, 1993; Ward et al., 1995). The case study described by Marshall (1993, p. 79) highlights the potential relationship between poor childhood attachment, chronic emotional loneliness, and emotional congruence with children. Thus, in the blockage model, emotional congruence with children is associated with poor childhood attachment, failure to establish satisfactory intimate relationships, social isolation, emotional loneliness, and low self-esteem (see Table 1).

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Table 1 Models of emotional congruence with children. Model of ECWC

Key references

Correlates of ECWC

Blockage

Araji and Finkelhor (1985), Bell and Hall (1971), Finkelhor (1984), Finkelhor and Araji (1986), Howells (1981), and Pacht and Cowden (1974) Marshall (1989, 1993) and Marshall and Marshall (2000)

Low self-esteem Lack of efficacy in social relationships with adults Fearful of women Precipitating stressful life event (i.e., collapse of marriage) Low social assertiveness Problematic childhood attachment style Chronic emotional and social loneliness from adolescence into adulthood Lack of long term, satisfying relationships with adults Socially isolated from adult peers Lack of disinhibiting factors involved in offending Anxious/ambivalent attachment style Lack of intimate relationships with adults Stress/alcohol precipitate offending Empathy for victims/feelings of guilt

Mohr et al. (1964) Ward et al. (1995)

Sexual deviance

Groth (1978, 1979) and Groth et al. (1982)

Johnston and Johnston (1997) Knight (1988, 1989) and Knight et al. (1989)

Psychological immaturity

Sexual preference for children/adolescents Sexual attraction evident from adolescent years Sexual pre-occupation Higher incidence of male victims Lack of offense impulsivity Cognitive distortions regarding sex with children History of childhood sexual abuse Sexual preference for children Low substance use Low offense impulsivity Low level of sexual aggression Not necessarily socially incompetent

Finkelhor (1984)

“Immature”

Fitch (1962)

Young age Single Emotional immaturity Lack of “psychosexual” development Lower than average IQ

Mohr et al. (1964) Note: ECWC, emotional congruence with children.

The sexual deviance model of emotional congruence with children In the sexual deviance model, we suggest that sexual interest in children is the main correlate of emotional congruence with children (see Table 1). Groth and colleagues (Groth, 1979; Groth, Hobson, & Gary, 1982) argued that for certain sexual offenders against children (i.e., fixated offenders), sexual interest in children is the primary risk factor motivating their offending against children. Fixated sexual offenders against children are also characterized by behaviors and emotions consistent with our conceptualization of emotional congruence with children. For example, fixated sexual offenders against children perceive their victims as warm, affectionate, broadminded, perceptive, innocent, clean, loving, and report being more comfortable and secure around children (Finkelhor, 1984; Howells, 1979; Li, 1990) and these offenders identify closely with their child victim (Groth et al., 1982). Of note, Finkelhor and Araji (1986) suggested that most of theories of emotional congruence make the implicit assumption that emotional congruence with children likely accounts for an individual’s sexual interest in children; however, these authors conclude that emotional congruence with children and sexual interest in children are likely distinct but associated constructs. Research on the association between emotional congruence with children and sexual interest in children has provided conflicting evidence. An examination of the relationship between fixation (i.e., pedophilic sexual interests) and high amount of contact (i.e., elevated emotional congruence with children) types of sexual offenders against children in the Massachusetts Treatment Center Child Molester Typology 3 (MTC: CM3; Knight & Prentky, 1990) indicated that most offenders classified as having a high amount of contact with children also show a high level of fixation (Knight, 1989). Although this finding suggests that sexual offenders against children likely to be high in emotional congruence with children (i.e., those classified as high amount of contact offenders) demonstrate sexual interest in children, the classification criteria for high fixation and high amount of contact have conceptual overlap. The degree of overlap limits the ability to draw firm conclusions regarding the strength of the observed association between fixation and emotional congruence with children. Seto and Fernandez (2011) found that certain clusters of sexual offenders display elevated levels of emotional congruence with children and constructs relevant to sexual deviance. In contrast, other research suggests that sexual offenders against children high in emotional congruence with children do not exhibit significantly higher levels of sexual deviance on age preference phallometric testing when compared to other offenders displaying low levels of emotional congruence with children (Looman, Gauthier, & Boer,

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2001). The contrasting evidence suggests the relationship between emotional congruence with children and sexual interests in children remains underexplored and a direct examination of the relationship is warranted. Johnston and Johnston (1997) suggested that for some sexual offenders against children, offending against children is caused by a combination of identification with children, sexual interest in children, and a distorted view of sexuality and the impact sexual abuse has on the child. In addition, qualitative research with sexual offenders against children who report strong sexual interest in children and display emotional congruence with children-type offending behavior suggests that these individuals hold beliefs that sex with a child is normal, legitimate, educational, and not harmful to the victims (Li, 1990). Furthermore research has supported a potential link between emotional congruence with children and distorted beliefs and attitudes about sex with children (i.e., cognitive distortions; Beckett et al., 1994). Looman et al. (2001) have also hypothesized that cognitive distortions may co-occur with emotional congruence with children. From these findings, we expect emotional congruence with children to be associated with both sexual interest in children and cognitions that condone and support child molestation. Within the sexual deviance model, additional expectations are possible. Knight, Carter, and Prentky (1989) suggested that the interpersonal sexual offenders against children (i.e., offenders who exhibit significant emotional congruence with children) will rarely offend impulsively, which suggests that the absence of impulsive offending may be associated with emotional congruence with children (Groth & Birnbaum, 1978; Knight & King, 2012). Importantly, researchers also note that “sexual thoughts and fantasies about children (. . .) preoccupy the [fixated] offender, and interest in them often reaches the level of obsession” (Groth, 1978, p. 7), which indicates that sexual pre-occupation or poor sexual self-regulation may also co-occur with emotional congruence with children. Finally, a history of child sexual abuse might play a role in producing both deviant sexual interests and emotional congruence with children (Howells, 1981). Currently, although these authors suggest a link between the two constructs, we are unable to specify the direction of the relationship between emotional congruence with children and sexual interest in children or whether this relationship is causal in nature.

The psychological immaturity model of emotional congruence with children A third model (see Table 1) includes psychological and emotional immaturity as correlates of emotional congruence with children (Araji & Finkelhor, 1985; Finkelhor, 1984; Fitch, 1962). In this model, the desire to relate to children is caused by the offender having childish emotional needs and delayed psychological development (Fitch, 1962). This model focuses on a failure to advance emotionally and cognitively to a stage that is congruent to the offender’s chronological age. This failure makes children more compatible with the offender’s emotional and affiliation needs. Within this model, sexual offenders against children are expected to lack certain cognitive abilities, such as abstract thinking or problem-solving, and there is some support for this contention (Blanchard, Kolla, Cantor, Klassen, Dickey, Kuban, & Blak, 2007; Cantor, Blanchard, Robichaud, & Christensen, 2005; Hammer & Glueck, 1957). Compared to the other two models, the psychological immaturity model has more limited theoretical and empirical literature from which to draw.

Current study The present study is an exploratory analysis of the correlates of emotional congruence with children; we have used deductively derived models to guide our expectations. We aimed to assess the strength of the associations between emotional congruence with children and a set of offense characteristics and psychological risk factors in a sample of incarcerated sexual offenders against children. Our goals in this study were as follows: (a) identify empirical relationships between emotional congruence with children and other psychological risk factors and offense characteristics and (b) assess the level of support for the blockage, sexual deviance, and psychological immaturity models. We did not make a priori predictions regarding the pattern of support for the models of emotional congruence with children but have summarized the predictions based upon the models.

Predictions for correlates of emotional congruence with children Based on literature relevant to the blockage model, we predicted emotional congruence with children would be associated with a sense of loneliness or social rejection, a lack of stable intimate relationships with adult women, compliance with authority figures, and a general lack of sexual deviance, such as a higher likelihood of offending against female children (as female child victims are not indicative of higher levels of deviant sexual interests; Seto & Lalumière, 2001). Based on literature relevant to the sexual deviance model, we predicted emotional congruence with children would be associated with low general sexual regulation, higher levels of deviant sexual interests and paraphilias, a lack of impulsivity, endorsing attitudes that condone and support child molestation, and offense characteristics associated with sexual interest in children (i.e., young or male victims, having more prior sexual offense victims, having unrelated victims; see Seto & Lalumière, 2001).

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Based on literature relevant to the psychological immaturity model, we predicted emotional congruence with children would be associated with being younger, poor cognitive problem-solving ability, low social competence, more female victims due to a lack of sexual deviance, and higher impulsivity. Method Participants Participants were drawn from an archival dataset of 419 adult male sexual offenders who had been assessed upon entry to the Canadian federal penitentiary system in Ontario, Canada, between 2000 and 2007 (see Seto & Fernandez, 2011, for a full description of this sample). Participants were included in the current study if they had at least one victim younger than 14 years old and were 18 years or older at the time of assessment. The final sample consisted of 221 federally incarcerated adult male sexual offenders against children. The clinical assessment process included a file review and, for offenders who provided informed consent, a semi-structured interview and phallometric assessment. On average, participants were 35.3 years old (SD = 10.2) at the time of their index offense and were low to medium risk for sexual recidivism (Static-99 M = 2.6; SD = 2.2). The median number of victims was two (M = 2.8, SD = 5.6). Of the 221 participants, 40.7% (n = 90) were married or in common-law relationships, 38.5% (n = 85) were single, and 20.8% (n = 46) were divorced, separated, or widowed. Measures Static-99. Static-99 (Hanson & Thornton, 2000) is an actuarial measure of sexual recidivism risk. The measure consists of 10 static items (e.g., any male victims, any stranger victims, age at release) scored using the information commonly available in offenders’ institutional files. Most items on Static-99 are scored 0 or 1, but one item (prior sex offenses) is scored 0, 1, 2, or 3. The total score can range from 0 to 12; individuals with scores of 0–1 are considered low risk for sexual recidivism, individuals with scores of 2–3 are considered low-to-medium risk for sexual recidivism, individuals with scores of 4–5 are considered medium-to-high risk for sexual recidivism, and individuals who score 6 and above are considered high risk for sexual recidivism. A recent meta-analysis found that Static-99 had moderate predictive accuracy (mean AUC = .68, k = 63, N = 20,010; Hanson & Morton-Bourgon, 2009). Items from Static-99 were used as proxies for the offense characteristic and psychological risk factor correlates indicated in the models of emotional congruence with children. STABLE-2000. STABLE-2000 (Hanson, Harris, Scott, & Helmus, 2007) is a measure designed to assess dynamic sexual recidivism risk. The measure assesses 16 risk factors that are scored as 0 (no problem), 1 (some concern), and 2 (present/definite concern) using file- and interview-based information. The risk factors are grouped into six domains: (a) significant social influences, (b) intimacy deficits, (c) sexual self-regulation, (d) attitudes supportive of sexual assault, (e) cooperation with supervision, and (f) general self-regulation. Hanson et al. (2007) report good internal consistency (˛ = .83) and good interrater reliability (ICC = .89) for STABLE-2000. In addition, STABLE-2000 has moderate predictive validity for sexual recidivism (AUC = .66, 95% CI [.59, .72]; Hanson et al., 2007). Items from STABLE-2000 were used as proxies for the psychological risk factor correlates indicated in the models of emotional congruence with children. Emotional congruence with children. Participants were classified as evidencing high or low emotional congruence with children using the Emotional Identification with Children item of STABLE-2000. The presence of emotional congruence with children is inferred from the following indicators: the offender having immature relationships with adults and/or no adult friends, viewing children as having unique qualities of understanding or communication, interest in childlike activities, having children as friends, and generally feeling more comfortable with children relative to adults (Fernandez et al., 2012). Scores on this item range from 0 to 2, with higher scores indicating more emotional congruence with children. A score of 0 indicates age-appropriate friendships, work, and leisure activities; a score of 1 indicates a noticeable interest in relationships with children and immature relationships with adults with some attributions of adult characteristics to children; and a score of 2 indicates a preference for spending time (e.g., child-oriented leisure activities) and having relationships with children and perceiving children as adults. Participants who received a score of 0 were classified as evidencing low emotional congruence with children and participants who received a score of 1 or 2 were classified as evidencing high emotional congruence with children. Those offenders scoring 1 or 2 on this item were classified in this way because they exhibited the presence of emotional congruence with children but to varying degrees. Generally the interrater reliability for Emotional Identification with Children item is adequate. For the Dynamic Supervision Project (Hanson, Harris, Scott, & Helmus, 2007), Emotional Identification with Children item scores were coded by trained community supervision officers for offenders on their caseloads. To assess interrater reliability of the item, four expert trainers reviewed the files and scoring of 30 offenders with victims less than 14 years old. The interrater reliability for the trichotomous scores was good (ICC = .75) and adequate for dichotomous none/any classification (k = .70; 87% agreement; R.K. Hanson, personal communication, April 23, 2012). Similarly, Fernandez (2008) found adequate interrater reliability for trichotomous scoring of the Emotional Identification with Children item of STABLE 2007 (ICC = .70). The Emotional Identification with Children item has also demonstrated a small positive correlation with the Emotional Congruence scale of the Children and Sex Questionnaire total score (CSQ, Beckett, 1987; r = .23, n = 12) and a moderate positive significant relationship with the Child Identification Scale-Revised (CIS-R, Wilson, 1999; r = .57, p < .05, n = 12) in past research, which suggests adequate convergent validity (McPhail, 2010).

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Phallometric assessment. Sexual arousal was measured by mercury-in-rubber strain gauge plethysmography. A mercury filled sylastic rubber tube of appropriate diameter for each individual was fitted midway along the subject’s penis. A plethysmograph monitored the conductance of the mercury column, which decreased as the mercury was stretched by increases in penile circumference. Output was monitored by a digital voltmeter and then collected, scored, and stored electronically on a computer. The audiotaped stimuli were from the Quinsey Child Sexual Violence assessment (Quinsey & Chaplin, 1988). The stimuli consisted of verbal descriptions of sexual episodes between two consenting adults and between adults and children presented to subjects via audio headphones. Stimuli descriptions varied the age of the sexual partner; the gender of the sexual partner; and the level of coercion involved in the sexual activity, including consenting sex between adults, nonsexual violence against an adult, coerced sexual activity with a child, and sexual activity with a passive child. An index of deviant arousal (ratio score) was calculated by dividing the average response to an inappropriate category (e.g., sex with a child) by the average response to an appropriate category (e.g., adult consenting sex). A ratio of .80 was considered the criteria for a profile to be considered deviant (Marshall & Eccles, 1991). In the present study, 51.1% sexual offenders against children consented to the phallometric assessment (n = 113). Sexual offenders were asked to consent to the phallometric assessment separately from the STABLE-2000 interview. We conducted a missing values analysis and Little’ MCAR test was non-significant (2 = 4.812, p = .568), suggesting data were missing at random. Furthermore, participants who did not consent to phallometric assessment did not significantly differ from participants who did consent to phallometric assessment in terms of age at offense, age at assessment, or static risk as measured by Static-99. As a result, data were considered to be missing at random and pairwise deletion was used for all of the analyses that included the phallometric assessment data. Phallometric assessment was used as an index of the sexual interest in children correlate of emotional congruence with children predicted by the sexual deviance model. Statistical analyses The Area Under the Receiver Operating Characteristic Curve (AUC) was used to examine correlates of emotional congruence with children. AUCs were preferred over odds ratios because odds ratio magnitude is not comparable across continuous and dichotomous predictors. AUC is a nonparametric effect size statistic that can be used to examine the probability that a randomly selected sexual offender against children high in emotional congruence with children will be more deviant on the risk factor (e.g., will have male victims, will endorse more cognitions that condone and support child molestation) than a randomly selected sexual offender against children low in emotional congruence with children (Hanley & McNeil, 1982; Swets, Dawes, & Monahan, 2000). AUC was considered preferable over correlation as the size of a correlation is artificially reduced the further the base rate of the dichotomous variable deviates from a perfect 50/50 split (see Rice & Harris, 2005, for an overview). Given that the base rate of emotional identification was 26%, correlations would be a biased effect size indicator. An AUC of .50 indicates no difference between the high and low emotional congruence with children groups on a risk factor. An AUC is statistically significant if the 95% confidence interval does not include .50. For the variables examined in this study, AUCs greater than .50 represent sexual offenders against children high in emotional congruence with children evidencing higher levels of the risk factor relative to sexual offenders against children low in emotional congruence with children. AUCs less than .50 represent offenders low in emotional congruence with children evidencing higher levels of the risk factor relative to offenders high in emotional congruence with children. As an interpretive heuristic, an AUC of .56 corresponds to a small effect size, .64 reflects a moderate effect, and .71 reflects a large effect size, as these values correspond to Cohen’s ds of .2, .5, and .8, when certain assumptions are satisfied (Rice & Harris, 2005). Conversely, AUC values of .44, .36, and .29 would represent small, moderate, and large effects in the other direction. Results Of the 221 sexual offenders against children assessed, 164 (74.2%) were classified as evidencing low emotional congruence with children, and 57 (25.8%) were classified as evidencing high emotional congruence with children. Of the 57 sexual offenders against children who were classified as evidencing high emotional congruence with children, 42 (73.7%) had a score of 1, and 15 (26.3%) had a score of 2 on the Emotional Identification with Children item of STABLE-2000. Blockage. The blockage model received partial support in this sample (see Table 2). The sexual offenders against children classified as high emotional congruence with children were significantly more likely to have higher levels of social rejection and loneliness (AUC = .66). Additionally, the prediction that sexual offenders against children high in emotional congruence with children will display lower levels of impulsivity was supported (AUC = .38). However, sexual offenders against children high in emotional congruence with children did not display a lack of significant adult social influences (AUC = .53) and intimate partners (AUC = .54), higher levels of hostility toward women (AUC = .51), higher noncompliance with supervision (AUC = .52), or the absence of male victims (AUCStatic-99: Any male victims = .54). The blockage model also predicts a general lack of sexual deviance for high emotional congruence with children offenders, however, this prediction was not supported. Sexual deviance. The sexual deviance model received the most support in this sample. High emotional congruence with children was associated with higher levels of problems with sexual pre-occupation and high sex drive (AUC = .60), using sex as a means of coping with negative emotional states (AUC = .62), deviant sexual interests (AUC = .74), and arousal to male children as assessed by circumferential phallometry (passive male child AUC = .65; coerced male child AUC = .61). Additionally, high emotional congruence with children was associated with higher levels of attitudes that condone and support

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Table 2 Differences between low ECWC and high ECWC sexual offenders against children. Low ECWC

Demographic variables Age at time of offense (mean) Offense characteristics/static risk factors cNumber of victims (mean) Prior sex offenses 0 (none) 1 (1–2 charges or 1 conviction) 2 (3–5 charges or 2–3 convictions) 3 (6+ charges or 4+ convictions) Any unrelated victims Yes No Any stranger victims Yes No Any male victims Yes No Any unrelated, male victims Yes No Psychological risk factors/dynamic risk factors Significant social influences 0 (no problem) 1 (some concern/slight problem) 2 (present/definite concern) Lovers/intimate partners 0 (no problem) 1 (some concern/slight problem) 2 (present/definite concern) Hostility toward women 0 (no problem) 1 (some concern/slight problem) 2 (present/definite concern) Social rejection/loneliness 0 (no problem) 1 (some concern/slight problem) 2 (present/definite concern) Impulsive acts 0 (no problem) 1 (some concern/slight problem) 2 (present/definite concern) Poor cognitive problem solving 0 (no problem) 1 (some concern/slight problem) 2 (present/definite concern) Sex pre-occupation/sex drive 0 (no problem) 1 (some concern/slight problem) 2 (present/definite concern) Sex as coping 0 (no problem) 1 (some concern/slight problem) 2 (present/definite concern) Deviant sexual interest 0 (no problem) 1 (some concern/slight problem) 2 (present/definite concern) Child molester attitudes 0 (no problem) 1 (some concern/slight problem) 2 (present/definite concern) Cooperation with supervision 0 (no problem) 1 (some concern/slight problem) 2 (present/definite concern)

High ECWC

95% CI

%

(n)

%

(n)

AUC

LL

UL

35.92 (9.76)

164

33.49 (2.18)

57

.42

.33

.52

3.02 (6.43)

164

2.18 (1.72)

57

.49 .46

.40 .38

.57 .55

.51

.42

.60

.45

.37

.54

.54

.45

.63

.52

.44

.61

.53

.44

.61

.54

.45

.62

.51

.43

.60

.66*

.58

.73

.38*

.30

.46

.51

.42

.59

.60*

.51

.69

.62*

.54

.71

.74*

.67

.82

.73*

.65

.81

.52

.44

.61

70.1 11.0 10.4 7.9

116 18 17 13

77.2 12.3 7.0 3.5

44 7 4 2

60.4 39.0

99 64

63.2 36.8

36 21

16.5 82.9

27 136

7.0 93.0

4 53

22.0 77.4

36 127

29.8 70.2

17 40

18.9 81.1

33 141

23.8 76.2

15 48

36.0 39.6 24.4

59 65 40

26.3 50.9 22.8

15 29 13

22.0 15.2 62.8

36 25 103

15.8 14.0 70.2

9 8 40

64.6 26.8 8.5

106 44 14

59.6 36.8 3.5

34 21 2

47.0 38.4 14.6

77 63 24

15.8 61.4 22.8

9 35 13

42.7 31.1 26.2

70 51 43

63.2 24.6 12.3

36 14 7

26.8 48.2 25.0

44 79 41

21.1 57.9 21.1

12 33 12

53.0 33.5 13.4

87 55 22

38.6 31.6 29.8

22 18 17

62.2 23.8 14.0

102 39 23

36.8 42.1 21.1

21 24 12

57.9 28.7 13.4

95 47 22

21.1 24.6 54.4

12 14 31

81.7 17.7 0.6

134 29 1

36.8 52.6 10.5

21 30 6

68.3 23.8 7.9

112 39 13

63.2 28.1 8.8

36 16 5

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Table 2 (Continued) Low ECWC % Lack of Concern for Others 0 (no problem) 1 (some concern/slight problem) 2 (present/definite concern) Entitlement 0 (no problem) 1 (some concern/slight problem) 2 (present/definite concern) Negative emotionality 0 (no problem) 1 (some concern/slight problem) 2 (present/definite concern) Phallometric results Sexual interest in female children – passive Sexual interest in female children – coerced Sexual interest in female children – sexual Violence Sexual interest in female children – non-sexual violence Sexual interest in male children – passive Sexual interest in male children – coerced Sexual interest in male children – sexual violence Sexual interest in male children – non-sexual violence Sexual interest in adult consenting females Sexual interest in adult consenting males

High ECWC (n)

%

95% CI (n)

51.8 39.6 8.5

85 65 14

50.9 35.1 14.0

29 20 8

60.4 31.1 8.5

99 51 14

64.9 28.1 7.0

37 16 4

71.3 22.6 6.1

117 37 10

64.9 29.8 5.3

37 17 3

– – – – – – – – – –

27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27

– – – – – – – – – –

86 86 86 86 86 86 86 86 86 86

AUC

LL

UL

.52

.43

.60

.48

.39

.56

.53

.44

.62

.55 .57 .55 .53 .65* .61* .56 .58 .42 .54

.44 .45 .44 .41 .54 .50 .44 .47 .29 .41

.66 .69 .67 .65 .76 .72 .67 .69 .55 .67

Note: ECWC, emotional congruence with children; AUC, area under the curve; 95% CI, confidence interval. LL, lower limit of confidence interval; UL, upper limit of confidence interval. The mean and standard deviation are presented for age at time of offense and number of prior victims. * p < .05.

child molestation (AUC = .73). Counter to predictions for this model, sexual offenders against children high in emotional congruence with children were not more likely to have a greater numbers of prior sexual offenses (AUC = .46); more victims (AUC = .49); fewer stranger victims (AUC = .45); more male, unrelated victims (AUC = .52); or lower likelihood of being in a stable relationship as measured by STABLE-2000 (AUC = .54) as compared to sexual offenders against children low in emotional congruence with children. Psychological immaturity. The psychological immaturity model received the least support in the sample. The only support for the model’s predictions was higher social rejection/loneliness as a measure of low social competence (AUC = .66). Counter to predictions for this model, sexual offenders against children high and low in emotional congruence with children were equally as likely to be young at time of offense (AUC = .42), exhibit problems in cognitive problem solving (AUC = .51), and have female victims (AUCStatic-99: Any male victims = .54). Additionally, in contrast to the model’s predictions, sexual offenders against children high in emotional congruence with children evidenced lower levels of impulsivity (AUC = .38). Discussion This exploratory study examined the correlates of emotional congruence with children in an incarcerated sample of sexual offenders against children within the framework of three deductively derived models of emotional congruence with children. The results were most consistent with the sexual deviance model. High emotional congruence with children was most strongly associated with sexual pre-occupation, using sex as a means to cope with negative emotions, deviant sexual interests, cognitions that condone and support child molestation, and phallometrically assessed arousal to sexual activity with passive and coerced prepubescent males. The results were moderately consistent with the blockage model. More specifically, the results were consistent with a main prediction of this model (i.e., that sexual offenders against children high in emotional congruence with children will have more problems with social rejection and loneliness). However, there were no group differences in other domains relevant to problems in social relationships. For instance, sexual offenders against children high in emotional congruence with children did not display lower rates of significant social influences or an absence of long-term intimate relationships. Finally, the results were least consistent with the psychological immaturity model. The predictions that sexual offenders against children high in emotional congruence with children would show difficulty in cognitive problem-solving ability and adult intimate relationships were not supported. Additionally, the predictions that these offenders would be younger and more impulsive were not supported. A number of authors have suggested that those offenders who display emotional congruence with children-type behavior will also display a lack of interpersonal skills and will only be comfortable around children (Araji & Finkelhor, 1985; Cohen, Seghorn, & Calmas, 1969; Finkelhor, 1984; Finkelhor & Araji, 1986; Groth, 1978, 1979). Markers of general interpersonal skills, such as the number of significant social influences and ability to maintain intimate relationships, used in the current research did not support this hypothesized lack of ability to initiate friendships and maintain relationships for those rated as having a high level of emotional congruence with children. Our findings are consistent with prior research that has found emotional

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congruence with children is generally unrelated to markers of impaired interpersonal competence (such as marriage; Knight, 1989; Prentky, Knight, Rosenberg, & Lee, 1989). Given the available evidence, we would suggest that markers of impaired interpersonal competence, such as the presence of marriage or intimate relationships, long-term employment, or number of friendships may not be useful in helping to understand emotional congruence with children. An important distinction to make, given previous and the current findings, is that although high emotional congruence with children offenders may not display markedly poor interpersonal relationships predicted by previous authors, these offenders may find these relationships to be unsatisfying, feel that others do not care about them, and as a result experience a pervasive sense of loneliness and rejection. The findings of this research provide support for the importance of considering the experience of loneliness and rejection in understanding why certain offenders approach children to satisfy emotional needs. This interpretation is consistent with Cohen et al.’s (1969) understanding of their similar results and theoretical work by Marshall (1989, 1993) and Ward et al. (1995). Our findings are consistent with past research and clinical observations of the relationship between sexual deviance and emotional congruence with children and extend these findings in important ways. Groth and colleagues observed that offenders that have a preference for sexual contact also identify with children (Groth, 1978, 1979; Groth et al., 1982). Taxonomic research also supports this relationship, as the high fixation type of the MTC-CM3 has been found to be correlated with offenders who have a high level of interpersonal contact with children (Knight, 1989). The results of the current research provide additional support for these findings. Importantly, this research is the first to provide direct evidence of an association between emotional congruence with children and phallometrically assessed arousal to sexual activity with prepubescent males. Emotional congruence with children was also associated with problems in sexual self-regulation, which supports theoretical work suggesting a possible link between the two constructs (Ward et al., 1995). In addition, Looman et al.’s (2001) hypothesis that cognitive distortions likely co-occur with emotional congruence with children-type offending behavior was supported. There are at least two explanations for this observed pattern of results supporting the sexual deviance model. First, it is possible that the observed associations are caused by deviant sexual interests (i.e., pedophilia). Emotional congruence with children could be a courtship display or intimacy style that facilitates an emotional connection between the offender and his child victim. Conceptualized in this way, emotional congruence with children is the result of pedophilia, a means of facilitating offending, or improving success with the offender’s preferred partner group, children. Although an explanation linking pedophilia and emotional congruence with children is parsimonious, some recent literature links pedophilia to factors associated with disturbed sexual urges and behavioral disinhibition, factors such as head injury in childhood resulting in unconsciousness (Blanchard et al., 2002, 2003), IQ (Cantor et al., 2004, 2005), grade failure and special education placement (Cantor et al., 2006), and frontal lobe dysfunction (Cohen et al., 2002; Graber, Hartman, Coffman, Heuy, & Golden, 1982). An alternate explanation of the current findings is that deviant sexual interest (i.e., pedophilia) is associated with emotional congruence with children and poor sexual self-regulation. For offenders who display emotional congruence with children, problems with sexual self-regulation could lead individuals to sexualize the emotional relationships they have with children. In this way, sexual interest in children is prompted by sexual pre-occupation and using sex as a method of coping with stress or negative emotions co-occurring with pre-existing emotional relationships an offender has with children. Consistent with this notion, Ward et al. (1995) suggest that some sexual offenders against children may sexualize a pre-existing relationship with a child. Our findings provide an extension of this hypothesis by positing poor sexual self-regulation as the mechanism through which these pre-existing relationships may become sexualized. This second explanation suggests that the existence of high emotional congruence with children and sexual self-regulation problems may predict deviant sexual interests in children. Given that these explanations cannot be ruled out using the current research, future research should further explore these hypotheses. Implications for treatment The findings suggest that for sexual offenders against children with high emotional congruence with children, interventions relevant to deviant sexual interest, and sexual self-regulation may be an important part of treatment. Treatment providers should consider that for some sexual offenders, their sexual interest in children may reduce their investment in pursuing adult relationships, which results in increased loneliness and feelings of rejection as well as higher emotional congruence with children. In addition to addressing issues of social rejection, loneliness, offense supportive cognitions, and improving motivation and investment in adult social interactions, treatment providers may incorporate interventions specific to promoting healthy sexuality with appropriate aged partners and managing sexual deviance. Failure to consider all of these problems as related and salient for the sexual offender who exhibits high emotional congruence with children may limit the efficacy of treatment to reduce the impact of these important risk factors. Limitations and future directions This study was exploratory in nature and given the nature of the data, the direction of the relationships between emotional congruence with children and its correlates cannot be inferred. In addition the data were archival; as such, we were limited in terms of the breadth of variables available, which reduced our ability to test some hypotheses arising from the three models and resulted in the reliance on a single measure of emotional congruence with children. As a result, the current

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research provided the least robust test of the psychological immaturity model’s predictions compared to the other models. Although this study indicates a lack of support for the psychological immaturity model, the evidence is not so overwhelming as to eliminate this model as a potential framework for understanding the correlates of emotional congruence with children. In addition, attachment styles associated with high and low emotional congruence with children could not be tested in the current study. As outlined in the introduction, theory also suggests a potential link between anxious/ambivalent attachment styles, long-term emotional loneliness, and having emotional and sexual relationships with children (Marshall, 1993; Ward et al., 1995), which may be another fruitful avenue for future research. This research relied on a single method of measuring emotional congruence with children, which may limit our confidence in the findings. Although past research does not nominate a specific measure of emotional congruence with children as the “gold standard” (McPhail et al., 2013), replication of these results using multiple methods of assessing emotional congruence with children will bolster our confidence in the findings and will likely expand our understanding of the relationships between these constructs. Finally, the relatively small sample size may have obscured important associations predicted by the three models. Conclusions Emotional congruence with children is associated with higher levels of deviant sexual interests, sexual self-regulation problems, cognitions that condone and support child molestation, and social rejection and loneliness. Importantly, our findings support previous theoretical work and extend past empirical work by highlighting the importance of considering the experience of loneliness and offense supportive cognitions for sexual offenders who display high levels of emotional congruence with children. From these results, it is apparent that multiple risk factors co-occur to influence sexual abuse of children in high emotional congruence with children offenders. Follow-up research to confirm these relationships and to examine the predictive relationships between emotional congruence with children, poor sexual self-regulation, and deviant sexual interests is needed. In addition, future theoretical work may wish to integrate these findings in developing an etiological framework describing the development of emotional congruence with children in sexual offenders against children. Acknowledgements We would like to thank R. 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Correlates of emotional congruence with children in sexual offenders against children: a test of theoretical models in an incarcerated sample.

Emotional congruence with children is a psychological construct theoretically involved in the etiology and maintenance of sexual offending against chi...
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