CHRISTOPH ROTT AND HANS THOMAE

COPING IN LONGITUDINAL PERSPECTIVE: FINDINGS FROM THE BONN LONGITUDINAL STUDY ON AGING 1

ABSTRACT. Within the Bonn Longitudinal Study on Aging (BOLSA) 221 women and men, born between 1890-95 and between 1900--05, were tested and interviewed in the year 1965 for the first time. Survivors were followed at seven measurement points until 1980. One of three lengthy interviews was related to the topic of stress and coping. Information on perceived stresses in the areas of housing, income, family and health were rated. Furthermore, responses to these different stress areas were analyzed by an empirically developed classification system. Findings point to a complex system of response patterns even in the group of very old participants. These response patterns were different for the four areas of stress, such as family or health etc. Response patterns related to the same problem area remained consistent over the 15-year span. Cluster analyses point to situation specific as well as person specific response patterns.

Key Words: aging, coping, longitudinal studies, patterns of aging, stress

DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY The Bonn Longitudinal Study on Aging (BOLSA) was started in 1965 with a sample of 221 women and men, born between 1890-95 or 19004)5. Seven waves were completed between 1965 and 1980; a follow-up with 34 survivors took place in 1984. As the subjects - coming from the western part of West Germany - were available for five days at each of the measurement points, it was possible to accomplish an overall assessment of the physical, psychological and social situation of the subjects and of the consistencies and changes in cognitive functioning, health, personality, and social relationships during the period of observation. One of three semi-structured interviews was related to the topic of stress and coping. Information received in this interview on perceived stresses regarding housing conditions, income, family, and health was rated. As shown in Figure 1, perceived health problems increased in women between measurement point 4 (1970) and 7 (1980). A similar pattem can be observed for amount of reported conflict and tension in the family as reported by the women, whereas men perceived less problems of this kind at the end of the study. This was true for both women and men in respect of housing and income problems. These last changes point to some stabilization and improvement in the social sitt~ation of our sample which was fairly representative of the lower middle class in our country. In the same interview, we also asked our subjects how they tried to cope with each of the reported problem situations. These reports were analysed in an empirically developed classification system which avoids the risk of a psychoanalytical interpretation as applied in the studies of Haan (1977) and Vaillant (1977) as well as the generalisations of a hypothetical-deductive Journal of Cross-Cultural Gerontology 6: 23-40, 1991. © 1991 Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands.

24

CHRISTOPHROTTAND HANSTHOMAE

s~

5

//

4

\\

4-

\\

3-

3

"~" \

3,

\

2"

\ 1

1965/66 I

69/70 I

HEALTH

80(81

1

19615/66

691/70

FAMILY

801/81

1965/66 I

69/70 I

HOUSING

801/81

9651/66

69~70

80tB1

INCOME

Fig. 1. Development of stress as perceived by 51 women ( ) and men (....... ) over a period of 15 years (1965/66 to 1980/81). classification system like that developed by Lazarus and his co-workers (Lazarus and Folkman 1984). Our classification system includes 20-25 'response classes' and tries to preserve the semantics of information. Any taxonomy of human behavior has to reduce the countless person- and situation-specific responses reported in interviews and biographical documents. This reduction is accomplished in our study by a form of abstraction which focuses on the general behavioral patterns which became manifest in the reported actions, thoughts, and feelings (Thomae 1987a). This paper reports first on the consistencies of response patterns related to the same problem area at different measurement points and then on the differences in the response patterns related to different problem areas. The second part of the paper will consist of the results of cluster and variance analyses carried out with a selection of our response classes and other variables. CONSISTENCY AND CHANGE OF RESPONSE HIERARCHIES WITHIN THE SAME PROBLEM AREA We shall discuss here only our BOLSA-data on responses to health problems from the second measurement point (1966) to the sixth measurement point (1976/77) of 81 survivors (47 women, 34 men) of the original sample of 221 persons. This will be done in the form of 'response hierarchies'. To establish a response hierarchy we first determined the extent to which the individual utilized the defined 'response classes' in coping with stress. Each person has a score for each response class. Then the means of the sample for the various

BONN LONGITUDINALSTUDY

25

response classes are calculated at each measurement point and ranked according to their mean scores. The importance of a specific response class is defined not only by its absolute value but in relation to the others. In the longitudinal perspective you can see which response classes remain stable and which ones change their relative position in the hierarchy. Beyond the responses to health problems, quantitative data for consistencies and changes in the response hierarchies related to family and housing problems are added. Furthermore, information is presented about the consistencies and changes in the responses to the same problem area for 51 survivors (32 women, 19 men) between the first measurement point (1965) and the seventh measurement point (1980). As fairly good health was one of the criteria for drawing our sample the rate of perceived health problems was low during the first years of our study but increased decisively after ten years. From this point of view one could expect greater changes in the rank orders of the mean scores of the different response classes from measurement point 1 to measurement point 6. As can be seen in Table I, most of the responses of the female survivors keep identical or similar ranks at measurement point 2 and measurement point 4: as a difference of up to two ranks is not significant, 15 out of 18 response classes included in this analysis did not change significantly during the first four years. Between the fourth measurement point and the sixth measurement point 16 response classes retained identical or similar ranks; one changed by four, and one by five ranks. From measurement point 2 to measurement point 6, i.e., over an interval of t0 years, there are still 12 response classes holding identical or similar ranks. The same degree of consistency can be observed also in the male sub-sample (Thomae 1983a, 1983b, 1987b). In the time between 1970 and 1976 the cohort 1890-95 had entered the ninth and the "younger" one the eighth decade, which means a transition of all participants to the "old old" age group. The consistency in the health-related response hierarchy in this transitional stage was even greater than during the first measurement period. In the male sample, nine response classes have identical ranks; five more differed by one rank. In the female group, in which the mean scores for perceived health problems increased more than in the male sample, eight response classes changed by zero to two ranks and in both samples no response class changed by more than four ranks. The findings are somewhat different if we compare the health-related response hierarchies of measurement point 2 and measurement point 6. But still in the male sample 11 response classes do not change their status by more than two ranks, and in the female sample ten. In particular, the higher ranking response classes change their position only with each other. This means high consistency even if differences in the rank orders of three to five ranks are to be observed. The rise in the score for 'Achievement-related behavior' can be explained by the greater efforts it took for respondents in their very old age to remain active and make their daily walks and exercises in order to remain healthy. The response class 'Adjustment to institutional aspects of the situation'

26

CHRISTOPH ROTT AND HANS THOMAE

TABLE I Response hierarchies of BOLSA women related to health problems at three measurement points Measurement point 2 (1966)

Measurement point 4 (1970)

Measurement point 6 (1976)

Adjustment to institutional aspects of the situation Achievement-related behaviour/Depressive reaction

Adjustment to institutional aspects of the situation Achievement related behaviour

Achievement-related behaviour

3 4

Resistance

Depressive reaction

Adjustment to institutional aspects of the situation Positive appraisal of the situation/Accepting the situation

Positive appraisal of the situation/Accepting the situation 6

7 8

Positive appraisal of the situation/Accepting the situation Relying on others Hope

9

Taking chances

Resistance

Cultivating social contacts

Adjustment to needs and habits of othersfl'aking chances/Cultivating social contacts/Identification Passive behaviour Asking for help/Hope/ Delay of gratification

10

11 12

13 14 15

Asking for help/ Adjustment to needs and habits of others/Revision of expectations/Passive behaviour Delay of gratification Aggressive-critical behaviour/Evasive reaction Identification with aims and fates of others

Depressive reaction

Relying on others

Revision of expectations Evasive reaction Aggressive-critical behaviour

Relying on others/Taking chances Identification with aims of offspring Evasive reaction/ Resistance/Hope

Revision of expectations Asking for help/ Adjustment to needs and habits of others/Passive behaviour Delay of gratification Aggressive-critical behaviour Cultivating social contacts

includes in this context any steps taken to use any provisions and insurances our society and health care system offer to e m p l o y e d or retired w o m e n and men. Therefore, the f r e q u e n c y o f visits to a doctor, the c o n s u m p t i o n o f prescribed drugs and applications for financial help to go to a resort are assigned to this category. ' D e p r e s s i v e reactions' rank consistently m e d i u m in the m a l e group and change f r o m very high to very low ranks in the f e m a l e group. Apparently our

BONN LONGITUDINALSTUDY

27

TABLE II Number of response classes from hierarchies related to problems in family, health, and housing with no change, small change and large change for three periods of BOLSA Observation period

No change (0-2)

Small change (3--6)

Large change 7--'16)

Mp2 - Mpa, Mp4 - Mp6 M p 2 - Mp6

62 56 52

26 35 39

4 1 2

surviving women learned how to cope better with their health problems in old age. A learning process is also indicated in the change of 'Resistance' from high to lower ranks in the female sample, whereas this way of responding remains in the upper middle in the male sample. Referring to health problems, 'Resistance' includes all forms of noncompliance with the doctor's advice regarding smoking, drinking, diet and activity. It is not possible to discuss all consistencies and changes in the health-related response hierarchies from measurement point 2 to measurement point 6. Perhaps however, we should point to the fact that cognitive ways of dealing with health problems next to practical measures like 'Achievement-related behavior' and 'Adjustment' remain in the upper half of the hierarchy, whereas evasive and passive reactions always belong to the low ranking response classes. These data point to a high level of consistency of health related response hierarchies separated from each other by 4 to 10 years. We can find a similar pattern of consistency over time in the response hierarchies related to conflict and strain in the family during the same period (Thomae, 1982). In Table II we calculated all changes in the ranks of 18 response classes from measurement point 2 to 4, from measurement point 4 to 6, and from measurement point 2 to 6 in all response hierarchies related to the problem areas of family, health and housing. It demonstrates that the group of "no" (0-2) changes outnumbers the size of "small" (3-6) and "large" (7-16) changes for any observation included in this interval. The group of small (3-6) changes increases especially between measurement point 4 and measurement point 6, and to a smaller extent between measurement point 2 and measurement point 6. The number of "no" (0-2) changes as well as of "large" (7-16) changes decreases in this period. If there is change at all in the stress-related response hierarchies it is gradual instead of radical. If we remember that the observation period coincided with one of the major transitions in human life the size of the consistency in the structuring of response hierarchies is striking. This consistency can also be observed in the sample of 51 women and men whom we could observe from 1965 to 1980. In the housing-related response hierarchy only five response classes changed their status by more than two ranks; the same is true for the response hierarchy related to income problems.

28

CHRISTOPHROTTAND HANSTHOMAE

Within the family-related response hierarchy 13 belonged to the non-change group for this period; and even in the health-related hierarchy 12 belonged to this group. This consistency in responding to the same problem area even over 15 years certainly stresses the role of the person in the process of dealing with stress without necessarily supporting a trait-oriented conceptualization of personality. We could not find any significant correlations between preferences for certain response classes and the personality dimensions of Eysenck (1981) or the factors of Cattell (1965). The consistent response classes reflect habits, perceived roles, and also norms regulating the daily lives of Younger and elderly people (Thomae 1986). In agreement with Lazarus and Folkman (1984) we feel strongly that cognitive systems like beliefs are very important for the selection and maintenance of certain response classes. In a cross-sectional study on women and men (mean age = 74.6 years) we measured the degree to which they believed in the unchangeability of unfavourable life conditions in old age (Expected Unchangeability Scale, Thomae 1981). We found significant to highly significant correlations between "Expected unchangeability" scores and preferences, e.g., for 'Depressive reactions' to economic as well as to health problems, for 'Asking for help' as a response to the same problem areas, and for 'Resistance' (non-compliance) related to health problems. Negative correlations existed between 'Expected unchangeability' scores and 'Adjustment to others', 'Cultivating social contacts', and 'Positive appraisal of the situation'. Other cognitive systems which may influence the selection of responses are related to future time perspective. An extended future time perspective was correlated in a significant way with active coping and 'Achievement-related behaviour' as responses to health problems. Those with a more positive attitude toward the future tended to be less likely to have depressive reactions to health problems (Thomae 1983b). So far we have not found any relationship between self-concept as a system of self-related beliefs, on the one hand, and selection of responses to stress, on the other hand. As a positive self-concept will have its impact on the 'secondary appraisal process' (Lazarus and Folkman 1984), it should be effective in influencing the choice of responses to stress. CONSISTENCY AND CHANGE OF RESPONSE HIERARCHIES BETWEEN DIFFERENT PROBLEM AREAS The consistency of response hierarchies related to identical or similar problem areas points to an economic principle in structuring human behaviour. Responses that turn out to be useful in meeting a problem situation are retained. However, this consistency could result in rigidity, if the same hierarchy were applied to any situation. According to the same principle of economy in ensuring well-being, adjustment, or even social survival, it is necessary to select

BONN LONGITUDINALSTUDY

29

TABLE III Response hierarchies of BOLSA participants at Mp6 as related to three different problem areas: health, family, and housing Health 1 Achievement-related behaviour 2 Adjustment Ia 3 Depressivereaction 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

Accepting/positive e appraisal Resistance Relyingon significant others Callfor help Revisionof expectations Takingchances Identification Hopefor change AdjustmentII Relyingon extemal control Evasivereaction Delayof gratification Cultivatingsocial social contacts Aggressive-criticai behaviour

Family

Housing

Achievement-related behaviour Identification Cultivatingsocial contacts AdjustmentII

Achievement-related behaviour AdjustmentIIb Cultivatingsocial contacts Relyingon significant others Identification AdjustmentI

Depressive reaction Relyingon significant others Delay of gratification Accepting/positive appraisal Revisionof expectations Call for help Evasive reaction Hope for change Takingchances AdjustmentI Resistance Relyingon external control Aggressive-critical behaviour

Call for help Takingchances Accepting/positive appraisal Revisionof expectations Resistance Delay of gratification Evasive reaction Depressive reaction Hope for change Relyingon external control Aggressive-critical behaviour

a Adjustmentto institutionalaspects of the situation. b Adjustmentto the needs and habits of others. c For this analysis,the two categories 'Acceptingthe situationas it is' and 'Positive appraisal of the situation' are combinedinto one category.

responses to problems and stress which are congruent with the demands of the situations. From this point of view, one should expect more or less greater differences in at least some of the response classes in the response hierarchies related to different problem areas. When comparing the response "hierarchies of our BOLSA subjects for different problem areas (family, health, housing, income) at each measurement point this expectation was confirmed. As an example for many comparisons, this is shown in Table III for the response hierarchies related to problems with housing, family, and health at measurement point 6. The ranks of eight response classes related to housing problems differ from those related to family problems by more than two ranks, those of ten housing-related response classes are different from the ranks in the health-related hierarchy to the same degree. The

30

CHRISTOPHROTTAND HANSTHOMAE

greatest differences exist between the health- and family-related response hierarchies. At all measurement points 'Adjustment to institutional aspects of the situation' (i.e., 'Adjustment r ) belongs to the highest-ranking response classes in the health-related hierarchy, whereas it ranks very low in the familyrelated hierarchies. We expect that the avoidance of institutions such as Family Counselling Services is a cohort-specific norm in our culture, since we did not find these low ranks for 'Adjustment to institutional aspects of the situation' in cohorts born after 1930. 'Adjustment to the needs and habits of others' (i.e., 'Adjustment Ir), 'Cultivating social contacts', and 'Identification with the aims and fates of children' belong to the most preferred responses in the family-related hierarchy. In the health hierarchies these pro-social classes consistently rank rather low, as our subjects were rather independent with respect to their physical condition. In samples of long-term patients depending on care, these pro-social behaviours are more prevalent (Kruse 1986). The perceived effectiveness of the response classes in relation to different situations is the main principle in the selection of responses also in aged persons - a finding that disconfirms the hypothesis about a general homogenization of responses to stress in old age (Pfeiffer 1977). 'Depressive reactions' rank higher in the family- and health-related response hierarchies and low in the housing-related hierarchy. This finding can be explained by a relatively low degree of economic deprivation and a rather low level of housing problems in most of our subjects. 'Resistance' (or non-compliance) ranks high in the health- and housing-related response hierarchies and low in reference to family problems. Summarizing this longitudinal and cross-sectional comparison of response hierarchies to problems in family, health, and housing of aged persons, we can state that they could be interpreted both in favour of a person-centred as well as a situational view of human behaviour. The consistency in the hierarchical status of most response classes over 10 and more years -provided they are related to the same problem a r e a " should not be explained exclusively by reference to personalitytraits. The impact of habits, social roles, norms, and some continuity in the life conditions of this sample between 1966 and 1976 or 1980 should also be considered. In studies comparing response hierarchies of women and men born 1900-4)9, 1920-29, and 1945-1960 for identical reference age groups (adolescence, young, and middle adulthood) we found quite a few cohortspecific strncturings of response hierarchies dependent on the historical situation. For example, World War I or 1I, the Nazi dictatorship, or the postWorld War II destruction of the German economy determined the life of these cohorts in different age groups (Thomae and Lehr 1986, Thomae 1987a). The situation-specific selectivity of responses as demonstrated by the comparison of response hierarchies related to different problem areas, such as the situation in housing, should be evaluated by reference to the perceived nature of these situations. Although there are good reasons to consider these perceptions as valid, the high degree of selectivity is based on differentiated cognitions of different situations.

BONN LONGITUDINAL STUDY

31

From this point of view, one could conclude that our choice of a different paradigm for the discussion of the person-situation issue resulted in an ambiguous set of information. This is not true, however, if we evaluate the data in the context of a cognitive theory of personality based on the systematic analysis of biographies. This theory takes "the individual and her/his world" as an integrated unit in which any change in the world will change something in the cognitive and motivational subsystems of this person-world symbiosis. Change and process rather than stability and eternal structure belong to the major issues of this kind of personality theory which, from this point of view, cannot see impenetrable barriers between its own field and that of general psychology. CLUSTERS OF COPING WITH PROBLEMS IN OLD AGE Up to now the sample of the BOLSA was regarded as a group where differences between the subjects were not discussed. As we know from many other studies with old people as subjects, the variance between persons is often more important than that within people. So we tried to answer the question whether the sample can be divided into subgroups. An appropriate statistical procedure for this purpose is the cluster analysis which combines persons who resemble each other to a high extent into sub-samples (clusters). The dissimilarity of the clusters is maximized. We carried out hierarchical cluster analyses (according to Ward 1963) with the scores of all response classes in relation to reported problems in family, health, housing, and income which were collected at measurement points 1 to 4 and 6. In a second step we tried to find variables which showed significant differences between the clusters. Therefore we carried out univariate variance analyses for the different problem areas. For the problem areas family and housing the analyses resulted in the identification of two clusters, for those regarding health and income in three clusters. 2 The clusters point to a high degree of situation-specific organization of responses. Within all of these four problem areas the identified clusters differed with regard to the amount of reported stress or problems. But there were quite different patterns of responses to the different kinds of stress. Variables which contributed to the membership of a cluster in one area did not in another. The stress scores ranged from 1 to 9; those of the response classes from 0 to 6.

The Family Clusters Cluster 1 (see Table IV) 3 is defined by higher scores for reported stress and conflict in the family at all measurement points. Members of this cluster responded to these problems more often by 'Achievement-related behaviour', by 'Adjustment to needs and habits of others', by 'Revision of expectations', and by 'Idenfitication with the aims and fates of children and grandchildren' than those in Cluster 2. They also made more effort in 'Cultivating social contacts'. Thus, the higher amount of perceived conflict and tension in the family is coped with mainly by different modes of pro-social behaviour toward spouse or

32

CHRISTOPH ROTT AND HANS THOMAE TABLE IV Mean scores for perceived family problems and selected response classes in Cluster I and II (Mp. = measurement point; Sig. = Significance; s = significant; hs = high significant) Family

Variable

Mp.

Sig.

C I

Degree of perceived family problems

I II Ill IV VI

5.46

4.31

hs hs hs hs

5.11 6.00 4.57 5.46

3.54 3.87 2.62 3.10

Achievement related behavior

I II III IV VI

hs hs hs

3.57 4.04 3.79 3.18

2.19 2.40 2.31 1.85

3.21

2.54

hs

C II

Adjustment to needs and habits of others

I II III IV VI

hs hs hs hs hs

4.11 4.32 4.25 3.21 2.96

2.17 2.85 2.50 1.88 1.71

Revision of expectations

I II HI IV VI

hs hs

2.68 1.39

1.23 0.31

s s

0.68 0.23 0.93

0.21 0.43 0.38

I II HI IV VI

hs hs hs

hs hs

4.46 3.57 3.25 3.04 3.43

1.92 1.69 1.52 1.29 1.71

1.86

1.32

hs hs

3.14 1.71

2.02 1.63

s s

1.64 1.50

0.87 1.06

Identification with aims and fates of children

Depressive reaction, resignation

I II III IV VI

children or grandchildren. On the other hand, the greater number of perceived problems in the family also elicits more negative emotional reactions like sorrow, regret, and depressive states (significant at measurement points 2 - 4 ) and evasive reactions (significant at measurement points 1 and 2). Throughout the whole study the members o f Cluster 1 not only reported more

BONN LONGITUDINALSTUDY

33

problems regarding their family, but also regarding their health. There was a slight, but finally significant difference between Clusters 1 and 2 regarding social status. Those of Cluster 1 belonged more often to the middle class whereas those of Cluster 2 belonged more often to the lower middle class. As there is no information available regarding a higher amount of conflict and tension in middle class families and as 'objective' health problems are more frequently associated with lower social status, the higher amount of reported family and health problems in members of Cluster 1 apparently points to their higher sensitivity regarding social relationships and own health. From this point of view the differences between Cluster 1 and 2 may be due to an interaction between person and situation. However, there were no differences between these two groups in the personality variable 'emotional responsiveness' (rated on the basis of observation at each measurement point).

The Housing Clusters Cluster 1 (see table V) is defined by lower scores for reported problems in this area. Women and men reporting more problems (Cluster 2) more often responded to them by 'Adjustment to institutional aspects of the situation' and by 'Adjustment to needs and habits of others. In both cases, social support either from institutions or from relatives, friends or neighbours is sought. On the other hand, members of Cluster 2 also responded more frequently with negative emotional reactions such as depression or resignation and evasive reactions. But within both clusters these scores were lower than those of 'Achievement-related behaviour'. As there are no differences~ in any of the personality variables between Clusters 1 and 2, differences in the selection of the responses point to the dominant role of the situational demands. The relatively low number of significant differences between the two housing clusters demonstrates that problems in this area are eliciting similar responses even in situations with different amounts of stress experience.

The Health Clusters The three clusters of responses to health (see Table VI) are defined mainly by differences in the scores for perceived health problems. These differences become evident especially if Cluster 3 is compared with Cluster 1. Members of Cluster 2 have fewer problems in the first years of the project than those of Cluster 3. At measurement point 4, their scores in this variable are as high as those of Cluster 3 and at the end of the study they are significantly higher. In short: Cluster 1 is defined by consistently low scores for perceived health problems, Cluster 3 by consistent high scores, and Cluster 2 by rising scores in this variable. As observed in many studies on the relationship between health as assessed by the doctor and health as perceived by the person (see Lehr 1983), the three

CHRISTOPH ROTT AND HANS THOMAE

34

TABLE V Mean scores for perceived housing problems and selected response classes in Cluster I and II Housing Variable

Mp.

Sig.

C I

C II

Degree of perceived housing problems

I II HI

hs hs hs

2.02 2.06 2.75

3.92 4.44 5.26

2.50 2.64

3.29 2.77

IV VI Adjustment to the institutional aspects of the situation

I II IH IV VI

Adjustment to needs and habits of others

I

-

1.57

2.00

II

hs hs

1.38 1.42

2.63 2.37

-

1.04 1.60

1.59 1.85

HI IV VI Depressive reactions, resignation

I

Achievement related behavior

0.81

1.30

0.86 0.92

2.52 2.00

0.66 0.96

1.07 1.00

s

0.23

0.70

hs hs

0.32 0.32

2.11 2.33

s

0.25 0.32

0.81 0.77

hs hs hs

0.25 0.58 0.28 0.II

1.19 1.40 0.93 0.44

VI

0.47

0.44

I II

1.74 2.53

2.40 2.63

2.25

3.11

1.92 2.42

1.70 2.11

H

HI IV VI Evasive reactions

hs hs

I II HI IV

HI

IV VI

hs

clusters did not differ regarding their health as assessed by our medical staff members in the first four years. At measurement point 6 the health status was poorer in Clusters 2 and 3 than in Cluster 1; reported physical independence was initially significantly lower in Cluster 3 than in the other two clusters. The most consistent difference in the scores for responses to perceived health problems was related to the response class 'Relying on others'. Although scores

BONN LONGITUDINALSTUDY

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TABLE VI Mean scores for perceived health problems and selected response classes in (Ouster I, II, and HI Health Variable

Mp.

Sig.

(2 I

C II

(2 M

Degree of perceived health problems

I II III IV VI

hs hs hs hs

3.15 2.82 1.64 2.27 3.45

3.70 2.65 3,65 4.10 6.75

4.11 4.81 5.59 4.04 5.70

Relying on others

I II M IV VI

s hs s hs

0.68 0.27 0.21 0.24

0.85 0.50 0.65 1.85

1.70 t.19 0.85 0.93

Accepting the situation as it is

I II M IV VI

s s hs

1.00 0.30 0.30 1.00

0.65 0.95 0.90 2.20

1.59 1.00 0.59 2.11

Depressive reactions, resignation

I II III IV VI

hs hs hs hs

0.97 0.39 0.30 0.60

0.55 0.60 0.85 1.85

3.70 2.41 1.19 1.52

Adjustment to the institutional aspects of the situation

I II HI IV VI

hs hs hs

2.12 1.42 1.45 1.18

2.15 1.70 1.80 2.40

3.07 2.22 1.74 1.66

Achievement related behavior

I II III IV VI

hs

1.64 1.46 1.27 2.36

1.25 1.45 0.90 2.80

3.04 1.88 1.70 2.74

-

for this variable were rather low in the whole sample, members of Cluster 3 scored significantly higher in the beginning. However, the highest scores can be found in Cluster 2 at the end. Cluster 1 consistently scored low in this response class. Another difference between the health-related clusters was found in the response class 'Accepting the situation as it is.' It consistently received higher scores in Cluster 3. Only at measurement point 6 were scores in Cluster 2 and 3

36

CHRISTOPH ROTT AND HANS THOMAE

identical. The same pattern is also true for the response class of negative emotional reactions like affliction, depressive mood. Scores for these reactions were always higher in Cluster 3 and lowest in Cluster 1. In Cluster 3 the scores were declining; in Cluster 2 scores were rising but identical in both clusters at the end. Of the active ways of coping, 'Adjustment to institutional aspects of the situation' was most frequently different between the health clusters. In Cluster 3 it was highest early in the study and in Cluster 2 at the end of the study. Next to 'Achievement-related behaviour', it was also the most often preferred response class in Cluster 1, although scores were lower here than in the two other health clusters. No personality variables discriminated between the health clusters. The degree of health problems as perceived by the respondent obviously was the decisive factor in discriminating between the health clusters. This is shown by the differences between true increase of perceived health problems over time in Cluster 2 and the decrease of these scores in Cluster 3.

The Income Clusters The three clusters of responses to income problems (see Table VII) differed in the greatest number of variables. Aside from scores for many response classes, personality variables are also included in these differences. The members of Cluster 2 reported the most income problems throughout the study. In Cluster 2 the scores were lowest at measurement points 2 and 3; at the other measurement points scores of members of Clusters 1 and 2 were equally low. Regardless of the amount of perceived income problems, 'Achievement related behaviour' was consistently chosen most often by members of Cluster 1. Members of Clusters 1 and 3 were quite similar in the choice of 'Adjustment to institutional aspects of the situation,' while members of Cluster 2 relied less on this coping device. Seeking social support by 'Adjusting to the needs and habits of others' was most often preferred by women and men from Cluster 1 and less so by the members of the other two clusters. This was also true for 'Cultivating social contacts'. Cognitive restructuring such as 'Revision of expectations', 'Accepting situation as it is' or 'Emphasizing positive aspects of the situation' had markedly inconsistent positions in the response hierarchies of the three clusters. Members of Cluster 2 were least likely to accept the situation, members of Cluster 3 had the highest scores for this response class at measurement points 1 and 6, those of Cluster 1 at measurement points 2--4. 'Emphasizing positive aspects of the situation' scored highest in Cluster 1 in the beginning, in Cluster 2 in the middle of the study. In Cluster 3 it always held a middle position. Negative emotional responses like affliction or resignation always scored highest in Cluster 3, and extremely low in the two other clusters. 'Evasive reactions' scored highest in Cluster 3 at the first measurement point, and always very low in Cluster 2. 'Passive behaviour' was reported more frequently only in

BONN LONGITUDINALSTUDY

37

TABLE VII Mean scores for perceived health problems and selected response classes in Cluster I, II, and III Income Variable

Mp.

Sig.

C I

C II

C III

Degree of perceived financial problems

I II III IV VI

hs hs hs hs hs

1.91 3.48 4.00 1.39 1.43

2.00 1.74 1.74 1.65 1.63

5.27 5.64 5.64 4.36 3.64

Achievement related behavior

I II III IV VI

hs hs hs

4.26 4.39 3.65 1.30 2.65

1.39 1.76 1.24 0.70 2.10

2.27 2.73 2.09 1.18 1.91

Adjustment to the institutional aspects of the situation

I II III IV VI

s hs s s s

1.43 3.00 2.52 1.39 0.70

0.70 1.35 1.46 0.98 1.50

2.00 3.00 2.36 2.09 1.27

Adjustment to needs and habits of others

I II III IV VI

1.30 2.87 1.57 0.39 0.95

0.91 1.22 0.50 0.22 0.93

1.36 0.73 0.82 0.09 0.64

Depressive reaction, resignation

I II III IV VI

hs hs hs hs hs

0.35 1.00 0.96 0.04 0.04

0.22 0.28 0.28 0.17 0.07

2.18 3.36 2.55 1.36 1.18

Degree of activities

I II HI IV VI

hs

6.96 6.48 6.57 6.39 6.13

6.02 6.07 5.93 5.91 5.50

6.73 6.55 6.45 6.27 6.09

hs hs

s -

Cluster 3 at measurement point 2. Generally, it belonged to the least reported responses. Striking differences were found in the personality variable 'Activity' as observed at each measurement point. It generally scored highest in Clusters 1 and 3 and lowest in Cluster 2. Even more striking were the consistently low scores for ' M o o d ' in Cluster 3, which might point to an interaction between

38

CHRISTOPHROTTAND HANSTHOMAE

person and situation in the more frequent selection of resignation and similar emotional responses by the members of this cluster. Regarding feelings of security, members of Cluster 1 always scored highest, those of Cluster 3 had medium ranks and those of Cluster 2 the lowest ones. These findings point to a certain impact of personality variables on the ways of coping with stress, but the inconsistencies in the importance of the response classes at different measuring points suggests that situational factors have a greater influence on the selection of coping strategies. Although the amount of perceived income problems generally had a declining tendency over the years, in Cluster 3 it remained rather high. These remaining problems were approached in different ways at different times. SUMMARY OF FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS In this longitudinal study we show that pattems of responses to health problems remain relatively stable over a period of ten years. When arranging data in 'response hierarchies', ways of active coping are predominant. The frequency of depressive reactions is rather low; they rank consistently medium in the male group and change from very high to very low in the female group. Consistencies of responses to stress can also be found in the problem areas of family and housing. When changes in the stress-related response hierarchies occur, they are gradual. There are hints that the preferences for specific ways of coping are related to the degree to which old people believe in the unchangeability of unfavourable life conditions. Although the observation period coincided with one of the major transitions in human life, the consistency of the response hierarchies is striking. When comparing the response patterns which are relatively stable within each problem area, we found that old people choose varying coping strategies for different kinds of stress. The greatest differences could be found between healthand family-related response hierarchies. Health problems are mainly coped with by 'Adjustment to the institutional aspects of the situation', whereas in the area of family problems pro-social response classes are more frequent. These different strategies are applied in an economic and flexible way according to the specific demands of the situation; responses which turned out to be effective in identical or similar problem situations are retained. Thus, a cognitive theory of personality is supported where the "individual and his or her world" form an integrated unit in which any change in the world will change something in the cognitive and motivational subsystems of the person-world symbiosis. The results of the cluster analyses are also compatible with the cognitive theory of personality. The members of the BOLSA can be grouped into subsamples according to the degree of perceived stress and selected response classes. The fact that the cluster analyses resulted in different numbers of clusters in different problem areas points to the influence of situational factors and the selectivity of responses. The greater amount of stress in the family is coped with by more pro-social behaviour, but we can also find more depressive

BONNLONGITUDINALSTUDY

39

reactions. Selected response classes within the problem area of housing emphasize the impact of situational characteristics. There are few differences between the two clusters. The greater the amount of experienced stress, the greater is the adjustment to situational and personal demands. The three health clusters differ most of all in the response class 'Relying on others'. Those persons with the highest scores of stress prefer this response class, but one also finds 'Accepting the situation as it is' and depressive reactions. The reactions to income problems are similarly differentiated. Altogether the response hierarchies and the cluster analyses come to converging results. There exists a sensitive interaction between specific demands of a situation and the selection of an adequate and economic response pattern. This interaction also explains the inconsistencies of the clusters in different problem areas. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT We want to thank Frank Oswald for his help. NOTES I This paper was originally presented at the XIVth International Congress of Gerontology, Acapulco, Mexico, 18-23 June 1989. 2 Discriminant analyses with the variables of the cluster analyses showed that the identified clusters were very distinct and were not overlapping. Subjects' membership of a cluster could be predicted by the discriminant function to 100%. 3 More detailed material is available from the first author on request. REFERENCES CITED Cattell, R.B. 1965 The Scientific Analysis of Personality. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books. Eysenck, H.J. 1981 A Model for Personality. Berlin/New York: Springer. Haan, N. 1977 Coping and Defending: Process of Self-Environment Organization. New York: Academic Press. Kruse, A. 1986 Strukturen des Erlebens und Verhaltens bei chronischer Erkrankung im Alter [Structures of Experience and of Behavior in Chronic Illness in Old Age.] Unpublished Doctorial Dissertation, University of Bonn, Germany. Lazarus, R.S. and S. Folkman, 1984 Stress, Appraisal, and Coping. New York: Springer. Lehr, U. 1983 Objective and Subjective Health in Longitudinal Perspective. In Aging (Vol. 23, Aging Brain and Ergot Alkaloids). A. Agnoli, G. Crepaldi, P.F. Spano and M. Trabucchi, eds. Pp. 139-145. New York: Raven Press. Pfeiffer, E. 1977 Psychopathology and Social Pathology. In Handbook of the Psychology of Aging. J.E. Birren and W.K. Schaie, eds. Pp. 650-4571. New York: Van Nostrand. Thomae, H. 1981 Expected Unchangeability of Life Stress in Old Age: A Contribution to a Cognitive Theory of Aging. Human Development 24: 229-239. Thomae, H. 1982 Atti di convegno: La famiglia e l'anziano nella societL [Coping with Problems in the Family in Old Age.] Pp. 80-99. Milano: Centro Intemazionale di Studi di Famiglia. Thomae, H. 1983a Perceptions of and Reactions to Life Stress in Old Age. In Aging

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CHRISTOPH ROTT AND HANS THOMAE

Living Conditions and Quality of Life. E. Bevervelt, ed. Pp. 64-84. Oslo: The Norwegian Institute of Gerontology. Thomae, H. 1983b Alternsstile und Altersschicksale [Stages of Aging and Fate in Old Age.] Bern: Huber. Thomae, H. 1986 Response Hierarchies Related to Different Areas of Life Stress: A Contribution to the Person-Situation-Issue. In Personality Psychology in Europe: Current Trends and Controversies, Vol. 2. A. Angleitner, A. Fuhrnham and G. Van Heck, eds. Pp. 47-62. Lisse: Swets and Zeitlinger. Thomae, H. 1987a Das Individuum und seine Welt. Eine Pers6nlichkeitstheorie [The Individual and His/Her World. A Personality Theory.] Completely rev. 2nd ed. G6ttingen: Hogrefe. Thomae, H. 1987b Alltagsbelastungen im Alter und Versuche zu ihrer Bew~iltigung [Daily Stress in Old Age and Attempts to Cope with It.] In Formen seelischen Alterns. Ergebnisse der Bonner gerontologischen L~ingsschnittstudie. U. Lehr and H. Thomae, eds. Pp. 92-114. Stuttgart: Enke. Thomae, H. and U. Lehr 1986 Stages, Crisis, Conflicts, and Life-Span Development. In Human Development and the Life Course. A.B. Soerensen, F.E. Weinert and L. Sherrod, eds. Pp. 429 AA.A..Hilssdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Vaillant, G. 1977 Adaption to Life. Boston: Little Brown. Ward, J.H. 1963 Hierarchical Grouping to Optimize an Objective Function. Journal of the American Statistical Association 58: 236-244.

Christoph Rott University of Heidelberg Institute for Gerontology Akademiestrasse 3 D-6900 Heidelberg, Germany Hans Thomae Langemarckstrasse 87 D-5300 Bonn, Germany

Coping in longitudinal perspective: Findings from the bonn longitudinal study on aging.

Within the Bonn Longitudinal Study on Aging (BOLSA) 221 women and men, born between 1890-95 and between 1900-05, were tested and interviewed in the ye...
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