Psychological Reports, 1991, 68, 755-765. O Psychological Reports 1991

CONTRIBUTIONS TO T H E HISTORY O F PSYCHOLOGY: LXXIX. PSYCHOLOGY'S FIRST PUBLICIST: H . ADDINGTON BRUCE AND T H E POPULARIZATION O F T H E SUBCONSCIOUS AND POWER O F SUGGESTION BEFORE WORLD WAR I ',* PAUL M. DENNIS Elizabethtown College Summary.-Between 1903 and America's entrance into World War I, journalist and psychologist H. Addington Bruce wrote numerous articles and books about psychology for the lay trader. At a time when widespread differences existed between psychologists as to subject matter and methods of study, he cultivated a decidedly Progressive image of psychology dominated by the concepts of the subconscious and power of suggestion. In contrast to the more hereditarian and materialistic assumptions embraced by most academic psychologists, Bruce's promotion of the importance of the environmentalistic and spiritualistic to psychology lent popular scientific credibiliry to a Progressive ideology and foreshadowed psychology's shift in the 1920s towards a greater emphasis on the environment and interest in the unconscious.

Against a background of growing industrialization, urbanization and immigration, psychology was transformed between 1880 and 1920 from a handmaiden of philosophy and "brass instruments" study of the mind into a more highly visible and utilitarian science. As new scientific and technological applications appeared, and Progressive3 intellectual and social trends emerged (for reviews see Hofstadter, 1755, 1763; M a m , 1763; May, 1959; Mowry, 19581, psychology strove to achieve both practical relevance and social ut&ty (e.g., Bruce, 1903, 1910f, 1911e). Accompanying the new telephone, phonograph, automobile, New Thought and new morality were the new Binet tests to identify the feebleminded and lie detectors to determine one's innocence or guilt. Also, there was Witmer's Psychological Clinic to treat the problem child, tests to fit the right person to the right job or advise as to the best means to advertise a product, and the new psychotherapies to give evidence of the power of the mind over the body (for reviews see 'An earlier version of this paper was presented in June 1987 at the annual meeting of Cheiron, International Society for the History of the Behavioral and Social Sciences, at Bowdoin College, Brunswick, Maine. 'Requests for reprints should be sent to Paul Dennis, Department of Psychology, Elizabethtown qollege, Elizabethtown, Pennsylvania 17022. Progressivism was a popular effort begun in the 1890s to safeguard the survival of democracy under the onslaught of special interest economic groups. I t became a national political movement under the leadership of such men as Robert La Follette and Theodore Roosevelt who advocated the expansion of government's power. Moreover, Pro ressivism was a set of implicit social theories marked by optimism and the belief that the rotlems associated with a rapidly growing modern industrial society could be overcome thoug[ the exercise of the intellect and will. Its various tenets included faith in the power of science (including the social sciences), emphasis on environmental manipulation as an instrument for change, concern for the welfare of the child and various victims of modernization, and an egalitarian view that assumed people to be basicaUy good and more similar than different.

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Baritz, 1960; Brewer, 1942; Camfield, 1973; Hale, 1980; McMahon, 1972; Napoli, 1981; Reisman, 1966). In short, psychologist and publicist alike contributed to a growing public perception that an applied science of the mind might be as effective in controlling human nature as chemistry, physics, and the new technologies had been in mastering the natural world (for reviews see Burnham, 1960, 1972; Cravens, 1978; Gabriel, 1940). This rise in psychology's popularity can in some measure be attributed to the fact that in its public presentation, psychology reflected and reinforced a Progressive faith in the power of science. For example, the numerous and well known popular writings of Hugo Munsterberg reflected the Progressive worship of efficiency by emphasizing and publicizing the potential value of psychology for the achievement by business and industry of a more economical utilization of resources (Haber, 1964; Hale, 1980). Also of importance, the popular and prolific writings of Canadian born psychologist and journahst, H . Addington Bruce, suggested how psychology might be used to promote the Progressive goal of social reform. Although more a publicist than a psychologist, and not nearly so well known to historians of psychology as Munsterberg, Bruce's writings are notable in both quantity and quality of popular scholarship. Publishing 63 magazine articles and seven books between 1903 and America's entrance into World War I, his work provides valuable insight into psychology's early public image during the Progressive era and establishes him as one of psychology's most influential early publicists. Born in 1874 and educated at Toronto and Trinity Universities in Canada, Bruce was a staff contributor to Outlook, author of a daily "advice" column on psychology for the Associated Newspapers and for six years news editor for the American Press Association. Moving from New York City to Cambridge in 1906, he enrolled as a graduate student in psychology at Harvard where he came under the influence of William James and the Boston psychopathologists, Boris Sidis and Morton Prince. A member of the Faculty Club at Harvard, and Fellow in the American Academy of Arts and Sciences for his work in social psychology, most of Bruce's articles and books dealt with psychology and totaled more than 100 publications at the time of his death in 1959 (National cyclopedia of American biography, 1917; Who's who among North American authors, 1929; Who was who in America, 1973; Henry Addington Bruce dies, 1959). Echoing the then widely held belief that the increasing pace of life and stresses accompanying a society in the process of becoming modern had caused a rise in social problems, nervous disorders, insanity and human suffering (for reviews see Curti, 1943; Fuller, 1982; Haskell, 1977; Myer, 1965; Weiss, 1969), Bruce (1908b) reflected the progressive's optimistic rejection of the notion that such problems were necessarily "the price that must be paid

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f o r . . . the exigencies of civilization" (p. 74). Citing the findings of psychical researchers, Bruce (e.g , 1908c, 1908e, 1910h) described how the subconscious and power of suggestion pointed to the existence of vast and unused inner resources which could enable people to exercise control over their destiny and better deal with the social problems and feelings of helplessness caused by modernization. Although he probably did little to alter the common public perception that psychology laboratories were places where "mental healings, . . . telepathic mysteries, [and] spiritistic programs" (Jastrow, 1908, p. 941) took place, Bruce's (e.g., 1909a, 1910j, 1911g) popularization of the work of William James, Boris Sidis, Morton Prince, and the French psychopathologists promoted a more scientific and distinctly psychological approach to such matters. And, by emphasizing that the subconscious and power of suggestion were psychology's two most important concepts, he cultivated a public image for psychology that was in tune with a Progressive ideology and contrasted with the more materialistic and hereditarian assumptions embraced by many academic psychologists (e.g., Bruce, 1903, 1916c, 1918b).

THESUBCONSCIOUS That "psychology today is the most conspicuous and most promising of the 'recognized' sciences," wrote Bruce in 1914f, is in large part due "to those 'dabblers in the occult' who . . . thought it not beneath their dignity to study table-tipping, alleged telepathy, and the disputed phenomena of the hypnotic trance" rather than to the "application of the laboratory methods discovered by Wundt and his pupils" (p. 374). However, in their attempt to prove a life after death, he continued, they discovered the mind to be more complicated than was first thought (Bruce, 1910b). The study of psychical phenomenon and mental healing suggested that all of an individual's consciousness was not incorporated in the "self" or personality; there also existed within every person a subconscious, or "submerged state of consciousness" (Bruce, 1908d, p. 582). Linking both the subconscious and psychology to the work of psychical researchers like Frederick Myers, psychopathologists such as Sidis and Prince, and psychologists, including Wdliam James, Bruce expounded upon a concept of the subconscious which was primarily "helpful" in nature as he glossed over Freud's more pessimistic and instinctual views (e.g., Bruce, 1910g, 1911d, 1912c, 1915g). Among its multitude of characteristics (e.g., Bruce, 1908a, 1910g, 1912f, 1914a), Bruce (1908d) wrote that the subconscious was a place where there existed "faculties and energies of which [one] commonly makes little use" (p. 582). I t was "a kind of workshop where the 'ego' rummaged among the memory-images of its past experiences" and where "without any will-directed effort . . . the most varied mental processes [were] carried on" (Bruce, 1913a, pp. 25, 8). Also, it was the basis for telepathy, wrote Bruce (1912a)

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in the Outlook, as well as the source of hallucinations. And, it was "a kind of vast store-house, wherein [were] preserved . . . memory-images of everything . . . seen, heard, or otherwise experienced" through the sense-organs (Bruce, 1913a, p. 8). Despite such varied and often vague descriptions of the subconscious, one point Bruce made clear to his readers was that there existed within the subconscious energies whose power was comparable to the forces of nature which the scientist and inventor had recognized and harnessed. O n the one hand, the subconscious contained "dire possibilities of unhappiness, suffering, disease, and even death;" on the other hand, it could also be a "docile and helpful auxilliary of the upper consciousness" (Bruce, 1914a, p. 229). As a means to conceptualize the ills caused by the stresses of modern civilization, Bruce ( 1 9 1 5 ~ wrote ) in Good Housekeeping: "all over the world are men and women suffering . . . from weird obsessions, abnormal dreads, and even distressing bodily symptoms, the causes of which are not physical at d,but lie deep in the subconscious recesses of the mind" (p. 456). While "the sufferer may honestly declare h s inability to recall any antecedent happenings of a fear-inducing character," continued Bruce (1912d), "it is found that subconsciously . . ., he always carries with him a vivid memory image of some occurrence that at the time shocked him greatly" (p. 545). Reporting to the reader cases of insomnia, stammering and bashfulness, as well as a myriad of examples of hysteria and multiple personality (e.g., Bruce, 1910d, 1911f, 1913d, 1914d, 1915a), Bruce showed how in each instance there were emotionally charged subconscious memories. Irregardless of the symptom, he wrote, . . . . the mechanism . . . is always the same. There has been an abnormal dissociation. The ideas connected with the original shock, although submerged beneath the threshold of consciousness . . . remain vividly alive in the subconscious, to act as perpetual irritants of the nervous system and in time to give rise to the appearance of the symptoms of which the sufferer complains (Bruce, 1914a, pp. 233-234).

More importantly, the subconscious was seen by Bruce as a source of strength to cope with problems associated with an emerging modern society. "All men of normal psychic constitution contain w i t h n themselves success-winning powers or faculties or attributes, utilized by the great majority to nothing like their possible maximum of use," he wrote in his 1921 book, Self Development (p. viii). " A man who energizes below his normal maximum fails by just so much to profit by his chance at life; and . . . a nation f d e d with such men is inferior to a nation run at higher pressure" (Bruce, 1916d, p. 56). But, he told his readers, it is possible to access the subconscious under certain conditions and utilize its power to improve both the individual and society (e.g., Bruce, 1908d, 1912e, 1 9 1 4 ~ ) Indeed, . even genius, he wrote, is "really nothing more than spontaneous upsurgings from the depths -

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of the subconscious" (Bruce, 1913a, p. 8). And, the subconscious of genius can be enriched and nurtured by conscious effort provided that one start early enough. If one does, Bruce (1915e) continued, you "may count on having 'happy thoughts' comparable with the 'inspirations' of genius, and enabling [you] to achieve results comparable with those for which the man of genius is acclaimed and honored" (p. 188). I n short, the subconscious opens "up to the human race vistas of possibilities and achievements unreached in any epoch of the history of the world," proclaimed Bruce (1910a, p. 690) to the readers of the American Magazine.

THEPOWEROF SUGGESTION Suggestion "can make of us saints or criminals, heroes or cowards," wrote Bruce (1910h, p. 436) in the Delineator. And, "it can lift us from beds of sickness, or doom us to hopeless invalidism; it can fill our lives with gladness, or with misery. I t is a great force ceaselessly operative, unescapable" (Bruce, 1910h, p. 436). Enriched with far reaching implications and used to justify Progressive programs of social reform, Bruce familiarized the reading public with how suggestion could both plant the seeds of illness or greatness in the highly susceptible subconscious and be used to unlock the helpful energies within. Referring frequently to the work of Si&s and Prince in his discussion of mental disease and its treatment (e.g., Bruce, 1909b, 1910i, 1914h, 1919a), Bruce (1910e) described how "grief, worry, anxiety, a sudden fright, [or] any emotional disturbance of a profoundly distressing character" (p. 774) might act as suggestions in the production of illness. But, citing one case after another, he boasted as to how the use of suggestion in "scientific psychotherapies [was] an unfailing instrument of cure in many maladies that have hitherto baffled medical skill" (Bruce, 1910e, p. 773). For example, the psychopathologist, wrote Bruce (1908b), has improved the abilities of "defective children," made "vicious boys and girls" into useful adults and helped the "victims of liquor and drugs" when nothing else would work (p. 77). Providing the problem has not reached a point of "cellular destruction," he continued, "it is invariably curable without drugs, without the surgeon's knife, with nothing but the use of skillfully applied suggestion" (Bruce, 1910e, p. 774). Secondly, Bruce (1911b) argued that suggestion was more than just a means whereby mental illness or disturbances in personality were either created or cured. Noting that for many people the word "suggestion" had acquired a "sinister meaning" and implied some "occult force" that was only applicable under unusual conditions, he wrote that in actuality there was nothing "supernatural" about it. I t is "a fact of universal occurrence" and can be applied to everyone wrote Bruce in the Outlook (1911e, p. 33). Indeed, "there is nothing that plays so important a part in the daily life of

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men and women as does suggestion. Mentally, morally, and to a large extent physically, we are what we are because of its influences" (Bruce, 1910h, p. 436). For example, Bruce (1910h) gave an hypothetical example of a seamstress whose demanding work conditions resulted in her having headaches and receiving complaints from customers. Stating that the illness was caused by suggestion and could be cured by suggestion, he wrote: The trouble is that you have allowed the unfavorable suggestive influence of your environment to dominate you. You have passively accepted the depressing, health-destroying ideas w h c h they intruded into your mind. You should have combated them vigorously by strong counter-sugges. cions of hope, courage and cheerfulness. When you come home at night feeling exhausted, you should have said to yourself, "Never mind, to-morrow will be a better day." You should have met your mother with a smile, and, instead of telling her all the unpleasant occurrences of the day, should have systematically set yourself to forget them, and to talk to her of something pleasant. . . . When bedtime came, you should have retired with some such thought as this-"I am going to sleep well to-night, and in the morning will wake quite refreshed, ready for a happy, successful day." When you awake, your first thought should have been, "What a pleasant day! How much beccer I feel" (p. 436).

Finally, the greatest role of all played by suggestion, according to Bruce (e.g., 1911c, 1913c, 1916b, 1927), was the one which it played during childhood. Reflecting the Progressive era's interest in the importance of early childhood experience, and foreshadowing the emphasis attached to the environment by psychologists in the 1920s (for reviews see Kern, 1970; Kessen, 1965; Sears, 1975; Senn, 1975), Bruce wrote in Century magazine in 1915d: Modern psychology has made very clear [that] every child at the outset of his life is much like every other child, a plastic, unmoral little creature, exceedingly impulsive and exceedingly receptive, readily impressed for good or evil by the influences that surround him (p. 309).

Such influences, he continued, radiate, as it were, "suggestions" which the child unconsciously . . . accepts, which he never forgets, and which soon or late find expression in his life in terms of action . . . . It is then that the wise parent, by judicious manipulation of the environment, by example, and by direct instruction, may hope to accomplish much in the way of laying the foundation for future moral and intellectual excellence (Bruce, 1914e, p. 146).

Reinforcing the Progressive tendency to increasingly locate responsibility on societal determinants to character, Bruce (1914h) emphasized that it was now time for parents to realize this and act accordingly. "The whole family life . . . should be regulated with a view to 'suggesting' into the infant mind ideas which, taking root there, will eventually blossom into habits of right thlnking and right living" (Bruce, 1914b, p. 546). Concerning the development of "right living" or moral behavior and emotional control, he suggested to parents that they "guard them [children] as far as possible against excessive emotional strains, while at the same time

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developing in them those characteristics that wdl best assist them to withstand the strains to which they are certain to be subjected in later life" (Bruce, 1915e, p. 179). Pay "closer attention to the emotional sides" of the child's nature, Bruce (1915c, pp. 456-457) wrote, and "protect them from unusually alarming sights and sounds" and "needless causes of fear, worry, and anger" (Bruce, 1917b, p. 95). For example, "see to it that the fairytales . . . do not reek of brut&ty and gore, of treachery and cunning" for it may lead to "that common phobia of childhood, fear of the dark" (Bruce, 1915b, pp. 331, 330). Avoid when in their presence discussions of "accidents, crimes, sensational doings of all sorts; they betray a fretfulness, an anxiety, an unrest, that cannot but react on the sensitive mind of the child, filling it with fears of it knows not what" (Bruce, 1912d, p. 548). Do not "uthze the fear impulse as a means of coercing the child into good behaviors"; and do not "intrust . . . children to ignorant and superstitious nurses, who take a morbid pleasure in 'scaring them half to death' with tales of demons, ghosts, and goblins" (Bruce, 1912d, p. 548). And, do not surround them with a "sulk-breeding environment," he continued, because even healthy children will sulk under such conditions (Bruce, 1917a, pp. 23-24). The "so-called law of psychological determinism . . ., with which all parents ought to be acquainted," wrote Bruce (1913b), "affirms that every occurrence in the moral life of a man is indissolubly associated with, and determined by, previous occurrences, and especially by the occurrences and influences of early childhood" (p. 725). Thus, parents should serve as models for moral development, suggested Bruce (e.g., 1916a, 1916e), by exhibiting traits of "kindliness, courage, sympathy, geniality, courtesy, [and] self-control" (Bruce, 1914b, p. 546). Regarding "right thinking" or intellectual training, Bruce (1912b) wrote that "the average child grows up more or less 'scatter-brained,' with habits of superficial thinking, and, worst of all, without the ability to utilize in any markedly effective degree its subconscious memories and powers" (p. 595). Thus, he urged parents to not neglect the importance of mental development in early childhood. Medical and educational psychology, he argued, offer the means to insure sound intelligence through the development of "latent brain power" even in those who at first appear deficient (Bruce, 1919c, p. 16). And, the process by which this can be achieved, wrote Bruce (1914e, p. 148), can be used by any "conscientious parent." In fact, even the "dull, stupid, to all appearances hopelessly defective . . . may be brought almost, if not fully, to normal intellectual activity, provided he is taken in hand at an early dayn (Bruce, 1916c, p. 303). More than that, argued Bruce (1913a), it should be possible to even cultivate genius in most any normal child. Citing among various illustrations the example of Boris Sidis' precocious son, William James Sidis, Bruce (1910a) wrote:

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His son's mental growth . . . is the result nor of heredity, not of exceptional talent, but of a special education he has received, an education having as its chief purpose the training of the child to make facile, habitual, and profitable use of his hidden energies (p. 692).

This was accomplished, he continued, through the systematic use of the power of suggestion. As an infant, Boris Sidis arranged his son's room so that it would "radiate" suggestions. H e made it bright and pleasant with attractive pictures on the wall, a little writing table with pad and pencil, a globe, and a bookcase with both serious works as well as fairytales. I n short, Bruce (e.g., 1911a, 1912b) enriched the concept of the power of suggestion to make it conform to the Progressive emphasis upon the environment and tendency to locate responsibihty for improved social behavior on societal determinants.

RE SUM^

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CONCLUSIONS

By embodying the concepts of suggestion and the subconscious with far reaching social implications and the prestige of science, the public image of psychology cultivated by Bruce strayed beyond the boundary of science to reflect a Progressive vision and hope for an "opening of a new era for the human race" (Bruce, 1908e, p. xi). "The greater mass of humanity," he wrote, could be made with the use of psychology to better "withstand the added dangers and strain incidental to the increasing complexities of civilization" (Bruce, 1908e, p. xi). Writing in Psychology and Parenthood (1915f), Bruce said that there now existed the possibihty "to create a race of men and women far superior morally to the generality of the world's inhabitants to-day, and manifesting intellectual powers of a far higher order than the generality now display" (p. viii). Indeed, he even suggested that there be established in cities and towns "psycho-pathological institutes and laboratories" at which lectures would be given to teach the public "methods of personal utilization of the energy hidden in the resources of the subconscious" in order to make a better citizen and race (Bruce, 1908b, pp. 78-79). Moreover, Bruce's numerous popular writings promoting the use of psychology for social and educational reform contributed to psychology's growing popular recognition during the Progressive era. Although his emphasis on the subconscious did little to foster a public image of psychology completely divorced from the trappings of psychical research, his rejection of the limiting views of materialism helped secure a greater role for the concept of the subconscious and subsequent widespread popular interest in the unconscious of Freud. And, by emphasizing the power of suggestion and rejecting the hereditarian doctrines embraced by many academic psychologists, Bruce foreshadowed the emphasis on environmentalism which was to emerge during the 1920s. Unlike the numerous psychologists who endorsed hereditarian interpretations of intelligence based on the Binet tests, embraced eugenics and spoke of the "menace of the feebleminded" (for reviews

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see Burnham, 1960; Cravens, 1978; Hale, 1980; Haller, 1963; Moore, 1977; Ross, 1979; Sicherman, 1980; Weinland, 1970), Bruce's critical stance was unwaving (e.g., Bruce, 1914g, 1918a, 1919b, 1922). Writing in the Delineator, he (1918b) said: If, as everything goes to show, we as a people are becoming more and more liable to functional nervous and mental disorders, to organic b r m dseases, and to the degenerative diseases of premature physical decay, what will the outcome be> . . . With the hopelessness of all this, as with the insistence of increasingly defective inherlcance as the prime cause of the deplorable conditions now unquestionably in evidence, it is my intention to take direct issue. I believe . . . that instead of being a result of actual racial degeneration through inheritance, the decline all too plainly discernable results primarily from environmental conditions caused by man himself (p. 56). REFERENCES BARITZ,L. (1960) The servants of power. (reprint ed.) Westport, C T Greenwood Press. (Reprinted 1974) BREWER, J. A. (1942) History of vocational guidnnce. New York: Harper. BRUCE,H . A. (1903) The educative function of empirical psychology. Bookman, 18, 189-192. BRUCE,H . A. (1908a) Historic ghosts and ghost hunters. New York: Moffat, Yard. BRUCE,H. A. (1908b) Insanity and the nation. North American Review, 187, 70-79. BRUCE,H . A. ( 1 9 0 8 ~ ) The mind and the body. Outlook, 90, 702-706. BRUCE,H. A. (1908d) The progress of psychical research. Forum, 40, 576-584. BRUCE,H. A. (1908e) The riddle of personality. New York: Moffat, Yard. BRUCE,H. A. (1909a) Mental healing to-day. Outlook, 93, 26-32. BRUCE,H . A. (1909b) Origin and evolution of mental healing. Outlook, 92, 1039-1047. BRUCE,H. A. (1910a) Bending the twig. American Magazine, 69, 690-695. BRUCE,H.A. (1910b) The ghost society and what came of it. Outlook, 94, 451-462. BRUCE,H. A. (1910~) Masters of the mind. American Magazine, 71, 71-81. BRUCE,H . A. (1910d) Mental aids in the conquest of insomnia. Delineator, 25, 320. BRUCE,H. A. (1910e) The new mind cures based on science. American Magazine, 70, 773-778. BRUCE,H. A. (19100 Psychology and daily life. Outlook, 95, 397-410. BRUCE,H . A. (1910g) Spirits-or telepathy. Outlook, 94, 666-681. BRUCE,H. A. (1910h) Suggestion in everyday life. Delineator, 74, 436. BRUCE,H. A. (1910i) What we know about hypnotism. Women? Home Companion, 37, 10 + . BRUCE,H. A. (1910;) William James. Outlook, 96, 68-70. BRUCE,H. A. (1911a) Dreams and the supernatural. Outlook, 99, 862-871. BRUCE,H. A. (1911b) The nature of dreams. Outlook, 98, 825-881. BRUCE,H . A. (1911~) New ideas in child training. American Magazine, 72, 286-294. BRUCE,H. A. (1911d) Our superstitions. Outlook, 98, 998-1006. BRUCE,H . A. (1911e) Psychology and business. Outlook, 99, 32-36. BRUCE,H. A. (19110 Real Dr. Jekylls and Mr. Hydes. Cosmopolitan, 50, 337-345. BRUCE,H. A. (1911g) Scientific mental healing. Boston, MA: Little Brown. BRUCE,H. A. (1912a) Hallucinations and the world beyond. Hamptom, 27, 772-782. BRUCE,H. A. (1912b) Lightening calculators. McClurei, 39, 586-596. BRUCE,H . A. (1912~) The marvels of dream analysis. McClure's, 40, 113-119. BRUCE,H. A . (1912d) The mystery of fear. Outlook, 100, 544-549. BRUCE,H. A. (1912e) The story of Karl Witte. Outlook, 100, 211-218. BRUCE,H. A. (1912f) Why I believe in telepathy. Hamptom, 28, 277-282. BRUCE,H. A. (1913a) Genius. Harper's Weekly, 57, 8-9 + .

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BRUCE,H. A. (1913b) The home training of children. Outlook, 103, 724-729. BRUCE,H . A. (1913~) Making the most out of childhood. Good Housekeeping, 56, 332-340. BRUCE,H . A. (1913d) Stammering and its cure. McClure8s, 40, 92-101. BRUCE,H . A. (1914a) Adventurings in the psychical. Boston, M A : Little Brown. BRUCE,H. A. (1914b) The boy who goes wrong. Century, 87, 542-546. BRUCE,H . A. (1914~) The education of Karl Witte. (L. Weiner, Trans.) New York: Crowell. BRUCE,H. A. (1914d) Hysteria in every-day life. Outlook, 107, 80-85. BRUCE,H. A. (1914e) New theories in education. Outlook, 106, 144-148. BRUCE,H . A. (1914f) Our debt to psychical research I. Unpopular Review, 2, 372-391. BRUCE,H. A. (1914g) The soul's winning fight with science. American Magazine, 77, 21-26. BRUCE,H . A. (1914h) Why do men drink? McChrrei, 42, 125-132. BRUCE,H. A. (1915a) Bashfulness. Cenhrry, 90, 766-771. BRUCE,H . A. (1915b) The fairy-tale and your child. Good Housekeeping, 61, 325-331. BRUCE,H. A. (1915~) The fears of childhood. Good Horrsekeeping, 61, 451-457. BRUCE,H. A. (1915d) The only child. Century, 91, 306-310. BRUCE,H. A. (1915e) Our debt to psychical research 11. Unpopular Review, 3, 176-195. BRUCE,H. A. (1915f) Psychology and parenthood. n.p. BRUCE,H . A. (19158) Sleep and sleeplessness. Boston, M A : Little, Brown. BRUCE,H. A. (1916a) Jealousy in children. Good Housekeeping, 62, 558-593. BRUCE,H . A. (1916b) The mind of the child. Century, 92, 146-152. BRUCE,H. A. (1916~) On the trail of the dullard. Century, 92, 302-307. BRUCE,H. A. (1916d) Religion and the larger self. Good Housekeeping, 62, 55-61. BRUCE,H. A. (1916e) Selfishness and your nerves. Good Housekeeping, 63, 39-40. BRUCE,H . A. (1917a) The child that sulks. Good Housekeeping, 64, 23-24. BRUCE,H. A. (1917b) Handicaps ofchildhood. New York: Dodd, Meade. BRUCE,H. A. (1918a) Are we aging prematurely? Delineator, 93, 8 + . BRUCE,H. A. (1918b) Is our national vigor in danger? Delineator, 93, 7 + . BRUCE,H. A. (1919a) Nerve control and how to get it. New York: Funk & Wagnalls. BRUCE,H. A. (1919b) The reshaping of America. Delineator, 94, 20 + . BRUCE,H. A. ( 1 9 1 9 ~ ) Those we call feeble-minded. Delineator, 94, 16 + . BRUCE,H . A. (1921) Sev-development. New York: Funk & Wagnalls. BRUCE,H. A. (1922) Testing the mental tests. Century, 105, 214-221. BRUCE,H. A. (1927) Your growing child. New York: Funk & Wagnalls. BURNHAM, 1. (1960) Psychiatry, psychology and the Progressive movement. American Quarterly, 29, 457-465. BURNHAM, J. (1972) Medical specialists and movements toward social control in the Progressive e n : three examples. In J. Israel (Ed.), Building the organizational society. New York: Free Press. CAMFIELD,T. M. (1973) The professionalization of American psychology, 1870-1917. Journal ofthe History ofthe Behavioral Sciences, 9 , 66-75. CRAVENS, H. (1978) The triumph ofeuolirtion. Philadelphia, PA: Univer. of Pennsylvania Press. C u ~ n M. , (1943) The growth of American thought. New York: Harper. FULL^, R. C. (1982) Mesmerism and the American cure ofsoulr. Philadelphia, PA: Univer. of Pennsylvania Press. GABRIEL,R. H . (1940) The course of American democratic thortght. New York: Ronald. HABER,S. (1964) Efficiency and uplift. Chicago, IL: Univer. of Chicago Press. HALE, M., JR. (1980) Hrrman science and the social order. Philadelphia, PA: Temple Univer. Press. HALLER,M. H . (1963) Eugenics, hereditarian attitudes in American thought. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers Univer. Press. HASKELL, T. L. (1977) The emergence of professional social sciences. Urbana, IL: Univer. of Illinois Press.

PSYCHOLOGY'S FIRST PUBLICIST: H . A. BRUCE

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Accepted April 16, 199 1

Contributions to the history of psychology: LXXIX. Psychology's first publicist: H. Addington Bruce and the popularization of the subconscious and power of suggestion before World War I.

Between 1903 and America's entrance into World War I, journalist and psychologist H. Addington Bruce wrote numerous articles and books about psycholog...
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