Psychological Reports: Disability & Trauma 2013, 112, 3, 992-1004. © Psychological Reports 2013
CONSTRUCTION OF ANXIETY AND DIMENSIONAL PERSONALITY MODEL IN COLLEGE STUDENTS1, 2 AHMED M. ABDEL-KHALEK University of Kuwait University of Alexandria, Egypt Summary.—A sample of 402 volunteer male (n = 156) and female (n = 246) Kuwaiti undergraduates responded to the Arabic versions of the Kuwait University Anxiety Scale and the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire. The latter questionnaire has four subscales: Psychoticism, Extraversion, Neuroticism, and Lie. Women obtained a higher mean score on Kuwait University Anxiety Scale and Neuroticism than did men, while men had a higher mean score on Psychoticism than did women. Factor analysis of the intercorrelations between the five variables, separately conducted for men and women, gave rise to two orthogonal factors called Anxiety-and-Neuroticism vs Extraversion, and Psychoticism vs Lie. Stepwise regression revealed that Neuroticism was the main predictor of anxiety. It was concluded that persons with high Neuroticism scores may be more vulnerable to anxiety than those with low scores.
The relation between personality and psychopathology has been recognized by psychologists, psychiatrists, and physicians for a long time; Osler (1899) expressed this as, “knowing the person who has the disease is as important as knowing the disease that the person has.” There are four goals of studying the relationships between personality and psychopathology: to aid understanding of the etiology of psychiatric disorders and provide new avenues for research, to guide efforts in prevention of disorders, to improve accuracy of prognosis, and to help explain comorbidities. Clinical experience has suggested that certain individuals may be more vulnerable to psychiatric illness based on their personality. Premorbid personality affects the prognosis of psychiatric illness and illness in turn may have effects on personality (Anderson & Bienvenu, 2011). The present study examined the association between anxiety and the basic dimensions of personality, i.e., psychoticism, extraversion, neuroticism, and social desirability or Lie, as measured with the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire. Therefore, the main research goal was to assess whether personality plays a predisposing role in anxiety. This investigation tried to answer this question using an under-studied and under-represented sample in the psychological literature, i.e., Arabic-speaking college students. Kuwaiti samAddress correspondence to Ahmed Abdel-Khalek, Department of Psychology, College of Social Sciences, University of Kuwait, P. O. Box 68168, Kaifan, Code No. 71962, Kuwait or e-mail ([email protected]). 2 The present research was supported by Kuwait University under Grant No. OP01/11. The author gratefully acknowledges the able assistance of the Research Administration. 1
DOI 10.2466/15.09.PR0.112.3.992-1004
21_PR_Abdel-Khalek_FMS_051513_130017.indd 992
ISSN 0033-2941
20/08/13 11:34 AM
ANXIETY AND PERSONALITY MODEL
993
ples have scored high on anxiety (Abdel-Khalek, 2007), and have strong sex differences in anxiety, with women scoring higher (Abdel-Khalek & Alansari, 2004). Cross-cultural differences may affect the association between anxiety and personality. For example, Xie, Leong, and Feng (2008) found culture-specific personality correlates of anxiety, i.e., the strength of the correlation between personality factors and anxiety was different for two samples of Chinese and Caucasian college students. The majority of previous studies have investigated the associations between anxiety and both neuroticism and extraversion. In the design of the present study the relation between anxiety and psychoticism is also explored, to replicate and extend previous findings on a sample from an understudied population. There has been a resurgence of interest in the relation between personality and psychopathology, especially anxiety and depression, using clinical and non-clinical samples (e.g., Gershuny & Sher, 1998; Jorm, Christensen, Henderson, Jacomb, Korten, & Rodgers, 2000; Krueger, McGue, & Iacono, 2001; Bienvenu & Stein, 2003; Anderson & Bienvenu, 2011; Sutton, Mineka, Zinbarg, Craske, Griffith, Rose, et al., 2011). One motive of this endeavor is to elucidate the etiological relevance of personality to anxiety. The general hypothesis is that personality may predispose to psychological disorders such as anxiety and depression. Eysenck and Eysenck (1985), on the basis of conditionability, posited that neuroticism and introversion may predispose an individual to anxiety. Clark, Watson, and Mineka (1994) stated that negative affectivity (or neuroticism) appears to be a factor in the development of anxiety and depression. Positive affectivity (one aspect of extraversion) is related specifically and negatively to depression, and may be a risk factor for its development. Gray (1982) suggested that neuroticism and extraversion dimensions could be combined to construct two categories: the neurotic-introvert and stable extrovert, reflecting the activity in the behavioral impulsivity-inhibition system and indicating a person’s vulnerability to anxiety and depression (Middeldorp, Cath, van den Berg, Beem, van Dyck, & Boomsma, 2006). Neuroticism reflects emotional instability. It is related to the visceral brain, more often called the limbic system, which regulates emotional expression and controls autonomic responses. Extraversion reflects sociability, liveliness, impulsivity, and the ease and pleasure felt in the company of others. Extraversion is thought to be related to the ascending reticular activating system, with higher arousal in introverts and higher inhibition in extroverts (Middeldorp, et al., 2006). Jackson (2002) noted, however, that Gray’s model provides only a partial description of personality factors and how they might relate to psychopathology. Eysenck (1957, 1970, 1997) has published the most extensive studies of how personality may relate to anxiety. Eysenck’s “giant three” model
21_PR_Abdel-Khalek_FMS_051513_130017.indd 993
20/08/13 11:34 AM
994
A. M. ABDEL-KHALEK
of neuroticism, extraversion, and psychoticism is a widely respected trait theory, based on factor analysis and a psychobiological perspective and has a wide international following (Jackson, 2002). However, most research in this area has focused on neuroticism and extraversion, or traits related to these personality dimensions, using English-speaking participants. Results have consistently indicated that neuroticism is positively related to anxiety, with both clinical and non-clinical samples (Lolas, 1991; Darvill, Johnson, & Danko, 1992; Ferrando, 1994; del Barrio, Moreno-Rossett, López-Martinez, & Olmedo, 1997; Gershuny & Sher, 1998). Hettema, Prescott, and Kendler (2004) concluded that neuroticism is a vulnerability factor in anxiety. Middeldorp, et al., (2006) summarized several studies and concluded that high neuroticism and low extraversion are related to depression as well as anxiety, supporting Eysenck’s theory. More recently, Hong and Paunonen (2011) stated that high neuroticism is associated with a broad range of anxiety and mood disorders, whereas low extraversion is associated specifically with social phobia, agoraphobia, and depression. Some studies have suggested a negative relation between anxiety and extraversion, albeit weaker than the relation of anxiety and neuroticism (Ferrando, 1994; Meleddu & Guicciardi, 1998). However, other studies have not supported this finding (Gershuny & Sher, 1998). Based on the Eysenck’s dimensional model, emotions are represented in a circumflex figure: depression (and anxiety) is related to high neuroticism and low extraversion scores; happiness is characterized by low neuroticism and high extraversion scores; and behavioral problems are associated with high neuroticism and high extraversion scores (del Barrio, et al., 1997). More recently, Jylhä and Isometsiä (2006) found that symptoms of anxiety correlated positively with neuroticism (r = .69, p < .001) and negatively with extraversion (r = –.36, p < .001). Cox, Borger, Taylor, Fuentes, and Ross (1999) examined the relations between anxiety sensitivity and the higher-order and lower-order dimensions of the Big Five model of personality. Regression analyses indicated that only a few scales significantly predicted anxiety sensitivity: the higher-order domains of neuroticism and the lower-order neuroticism facets of anxiety and selfconsciousness (positively), and extraversion (negatively). Other studies have investigated interactions among neuroticism, extraversion, and anxiety. McFatter (1994) explored the relations of neuroticism and extraversion with measures of affect. He found that when the measures of negative affect and depression were the dependent variables, there was a significant interaction of extraversion and neuroticism. Gershuny and Sher (1998) examined the effect of personality dimensions of neuroticism, extraversion, and psychoticism on anxiety and depression in a three-year prospective study of primarily undergraduate
21_PR_Abdel-Khalek_FMS_051513_130017.indd 994
20/08/13 11:34 AM
ANXIETY AND PERSONALITY MODEL
995
students. They found an interaction between neuroticism and extraversion predicted both global anxiety and depression three years after initial assessment. They concluded that high neuroticism and low extraversion may play an important predisposing, etiological role in anxiety. Jorm, et al. (2000) tried to replicate the two aforementioned studies using data from two community samples. Both studies found that neuroticism predicted anxiety and depression, but there was no interaction of neuroticism and extraversion. On the basis of the DSM nomenclature of anxiety disorders, Norton, Cox, Hewitt, and McLeod (1997) found that the non-generalized social anxiety was associated negatively with extraversion, whereas generalized social anxiety was more related to, and mostly predicted by, neuroticism. In a similar vein, Sharma (2003) found that neuroticism was correlated more strongly with general anxiety disorder than other personality parameters. There has been little research and contradictory results relating anxiety and psychoticism. Lolas (1991) found a positive relation between anxiety and psychoticism. Similarly, Gershuny and Sher (1998) reported a moderate relation, and Williams (1990) reported a weak correlation, whereas Darvill, et al. (1992) found no relation between anxiety and psychoticism. The association between psychopathology, including anxiety measures, and social desirability or Lie scale was a subject of several studies reporting positive relations. Costa and McCrae (1985) acknowledged that scores on the NEO–PI might be influenced by response style. Hurley (1998) stated that we should directly address, rather than discount or ignore, the role of response styles. Several studies have reported sex-related differences in anxiety, especially in Arabic-speaking samples (Weisman, 1985; Yonkers & Gurguis, 1995; Gater, Tansella, Korten, Tiemens, Mavreas, & Olatawura, 1998; Pigott, 1999; Mackinaw-Koons & Vasey, 2000; Abdel-Khalek & Alansari, 2004). Sex-related differences in personality have been reported (Feingold, 1994). In two large samples (N = 1,571; N = 864) of Kuwaiti undergraduates, men obtained significantly higher mean scores on psychoticism and extraversion than did women, while women obtained higher mean scores on anxiety and neuroticism than did men (Abdel-Khalek, 2000, unpublished; see Table 1 below). In this study, a sample from an understudied culture, Kuwaiti Muslims, was recruited. Based on previous results and theory: Hypothesis 1. There will be significant sex differences: men will have a higher mean score on psychoticism, whereas women will have higher mean scores on anxiety and neuroticism.
21_PR_Abdel-Khalek_FMS_051513_130017.indd 995
20/08/13 11:34 AM
996
A. M. ABDEL-KHALEK
Hypothesis 2. There will be statistically significant correlations between anxiety and both neuroticism and psychoticism. Hypothesis 3. In a principal components analysis of personality and anxiety measures, two factors will be extracted. Hypothesis 4. Neuroticism will be the main predictor of anxiety. METHOD Participants A convenience sample of 402 volunteer Kuwait University college students (156 men, 246 women) was recruited. They were from several majors in College of Social Sciences. All of them were Muslims and Kuwaiti citizens. Their ages ranged from 17 to 46 years. For men, M age = 24.1 yr. (SD = 6.3) and for women, M age = 21.1 yr. (SD = 2.5) (t400 = 6.7, p < .001). Questionnaires The Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ; Eysenck & Eysenck, 1975).—The Arabic form (Abdel-Khalek & Eysenck, 1983) of this scale was used. This version contains 91 items with a Yes/No response format. The EPQ measures the following four dimensions: Psychoticism, Extraversion, Neuroticism, and Lie with 25, 20, 23, and 23 items, respectively. Cronbach α reliabilities were .72, .77, .86, and .79, respectively. The validity of the scale is supported by extensive research on Arab participants (e.g., Abdel-Khalek & Eysenck, 1983; Abdel-Khalek, 2013). The Kuwait University Anxiety Scale (KUAS; Abdel-Khalek, 2000, 2003).—This scale measures trait and not state anxiety. It has comparable Arabic, English, German, and Spanish versions. It consists of 20 brief statements. Each statement is answered on a 4-point intensity scale, anchored by 1: Rarely and 4: Always. In previous studies on Kuwaiti samples, using the Arabic version, reliabilities of the scale ranged from .88 to .92 (Cronbach’s α), and between .70 and .93 (test-retest), indicating good internal consistency and temporal stability. The criterion-related validity of the scale ranged between .70 and .88 (five criteria), while the loadings of the scale on a general factor of anxiety were .93 and .95 in two-factor analyses, supporting the scale’s criterion-related and factor validity. Discriminant validity of the scale has also been demonstrated. Factor analysis of the scale items yielded three factors labeled Cognitive/ Affective, Subjective, and Somatic anxiety. However, all previous studies on this scale with participants of different Arab and Western nationalities (Abdel-Khalek, 2007) have used the total scale score because of its high reliability. The scale has displayed good psychometric properties in large samples of Kuwaiti and Arab undergraduates (Alansari, 2002, 2004), Spanish participants (Abdel-Khalek, Tomás-Sábado, & Gómez-
21_PR_Abdel-Khalek_FMS_051513_130017.indd 996
20/08/13 11:34 AM
997
ANXIETY AND PERSONALITY MODEL
Benito, 2004), Saudi and Syrian participants (Abdel-Khalek & Rudwan, 2001; Abdel-Khalek & Al-Damaty, 2003), American participants (AbdelKhalek & Lester, 2003), German participants (Abdel-Khalek, Reschke, Rudwan, & Tanjour, 2006), and also in British samples (Abdel-Khalek & Maltby, 2009). Procedure The EPQ and KUAS, in their Arabic versions, were administered anonymously to students during small group sessions in their regular classrooms during university hours in the academic year 2009/2010. Statistical Analysis SPSS (2009) was used for the statistical analyses of the data. Descriptive statistics, t tests, effect size, and Pearson product moment correlations were calculated. A principal components analysis (PCA) was applied with the Kaiser rule. Then, the unrotated factors were rotated to a simple structure using the direct Varimax method of orthogonal rotation. Stepwise regression was also applied. TABLE 1 CRONBACH’S α RELIABILITY, MEAN (M), STANDARD DEVIATION (SD), AND SEX COMPARISONS FOR CURRENT SAMPLE Scale Anxiety
α .90
Men (n = 156)
Women (n = 246)
M
SD
M
SD
35.22
10.24
37.79
9.10
t
p
d
2.63
.009
.26 .43
Psychoticism
.71
5.15
3.38
3.82
2.57
4.23
.0001
Extraversion
.72
12.99
3.82
12.45
3.97
1.34
ns
Neuroticism
.87
11.76
5.16
13.56
4.53
3.66
.0001
Lie .71 12.25 4.53 12.98 Note.—All sex differences had small effect sizes.
4.16
1.67
ns
.37
RESULTS Table 1 provides the descriptive statistics of the KUAS and EPQ subscales among men and women. As can be seen from this table, Cronbach’s alpha reliabilities ranged from .71 to .90, indicating acceptable to good reliabilities. It is particularly noteworthy that the KUAS and Neuroticism had the highest alpha coefficients (.90 and .87, respectively) whereas the alphas for Psychoticism, Extraversion, and Lie ranged between .71 and .72. Men obtained a statistically significantly higher mean score on psychoticism than women, while women had statistically significantly higher mean scores on Anxiety and Neuroticism than men. The effect sizes were small. As for Extraversion and Lie subscales, no sex differences were found.
21_PR_Abdel-Khalek_FMS_051513_130017.indd 997
20/08/13 11:34 AM
998
A. M. ABDEL-KHALEK TABLE 2 MEAN (M), STANDARD DEVIATION (SD), T-RATIO, AND EFFECT SIZE (D) OF SEX DIFFERENCES ON ANXIETY AND EYSENCK PERSONALITY QUESTIONNAIRE IN A NORMATIVE SAMPLE OF KUWAITI COLLEGE STUDENTS Scale
Men
Women
t
d
10.6
10.27
.52†
2.4
5.98
.41*
3.8
2.21
n
M
SD
n
M
SD
Anxiety
804
35.3
9.4
767
40.5
Psychoticism
385
4.9
3.3
479
3.7
Extraversion
385
13.2
4.1
479
12.6
Neuroticism
385
12.1
4.5
479
14.8
4.1
9.12
Lie 385 12.9 3.8 *Small effect size. †Medium effect size.
479
13.2
3.7
1.17
.62†
TABLE 3 PEARSON CORRELATION IN MEN (N = 156; LOWER MATRIX) AND WOMEN (N = 246; UPPER MATRIX) Scale
A
Anxiety (A) Psychoticism (P) Extraversion (E) Neuroticism (N)
P
E
N
L
.17†
–.19†
.65†
–.12
.21†
–.39†
–.28†
–.03
.26† –.12
.08 .03
.58†
.24†
–.26†
Lie (L) –.26† *p < .05, †p < .01 (2-tailed).
–.37†
–.15
–.13* –.21†
The present results (Table 1) are compared with normative data for scales derived from a normative sample of Kuwait university college students (Table 2). Inspection shows that statistically significant sex differences were found for Psychoticism and Extraversion scales, on which men obtained high mean scores, whereas women had high mean scores on Anxiety and Neuroticism. The sex effect sizes were small to medium. There is good similarity between the descriptive statistics in Tables 1 and 2 and the observed differences, except the high mean score on Extraversion in men in Table 2. In general, the mean scores in the present study were not very different from the normative data. Table 3 presents the Pearson correlations between the total scores on the Kuwaiti University Anxiety Scale and the subscales of the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire, separately for men and women. Inspection of this table reveals that the highest (positive) correlation in the two matrices was that between the Kuwait University Anxiety Scale and Neuroticism. Following this correlation came the (negative) correlation between Psychoticism and Lie in both samples. Statistically significant correlations were found between Psychoticism and Neuroticism scales (positive), Neuroticism and Extraversion scales, and Neuroticism and Lie scales (negative). The last mentioned results are relevant for both men and women.
21_PR_Abdel-Khalek_FMS_051513_130017.indd 998
20/08/13 11:34 AM
999
ANXIETY AND PERSONALITY MODEL
To test the factor structure of the study variables, the correlation matrices for men and women were subjected separately to PCA with iteration. Based on the Bartlett’s test, skewness, and kurtosis, factor analysis was justified and the matrices were factorable. The Kaiser criterion, i.e., the eigenvalue greater than or equal to 1.0, and the scree test followed. Table 4 displays the two extracted factors after orthogonal rotation by Varimax. The two factors accounted for a reasonable amount of the total variance—65.1% and 64.3% in men and women, respectively. On the basis of a loading of .50, the first factor may be labeled, among men and women, TABLE 4 ROTATED FACTORS (VARIMAX) Men
Scale
Factor I
Anxiety (A)
Women Factor II
.72
.38
Psychoticism (P)
.22
Extraversion (E)
–.66
Neuroticism (N)
Factor I
Factor II
.82
.17
.70
.13
.80
.48
–.58
.14
.83
.20
.86
.19
Lie (L)
–.08
–.80
.02
–.85
Eigenvalue
1.70
1.56
1.78
1.44
33.91
31.13
35.56
% variance
Total variance 65.04 Note.—Boldface type indicates loadings above the criterion of .50.
28.71 64.27
“Anxiety-and-Neuroticism vs Extraversion.” The second factor may be labeled: “Psychoticism vs Lie.” Table 5 reports the stepwise regression results, in which Anxiety was the dependent variable. Independent variables of personality scales, age, and sex were entered into the model successively, based on their ability to affect the dependent variable. As can be seen from this table, the model was statistically significant (F = 132.57, p < .0001). The model explained 40.2% of the total variance in Anxiety scores. The main predictor of Anxiety TABLE 5 STEPWISE REGRESSION FOR PREDICTING ANXIETY IN MEN AND WOMEN (N = 402) Scale Neuroticism Lie
B
β
t
p
R2
1.22
.62
15.72
.0001
.396
–0.16
–.07
–1.85
.0660
.402
14.03
.0001
Constant 23.15 Note.—F = 132.57; p < .0001.
21_PR_Abdel-Khalek_FMS_051513_130017.indd 999
20/08/13 11:34 AM
1000
A. M. ABDEL-KHALEK
was Neuroticism, which explained 39.6% of the variance in the first step of the regression. Lie scale (negative) was added in the second step and explained 0.6%. Extraversion, Psychoticism, age, and sex were excluded. DISCUSSION Cronbach’s α reliability of the questionnaires used ranged between .71 and .90, indicating acceptable to good internal consistency. Kline (2000) suggested that reliabilities of .70 or higher are acceptable to validate research results. The sex-related differences (see Table 1) were statistically significant in which women had the high scores on Anxiety and Neuroticism, and men had the high mean score on Psychoticism. The high mean score on Psychoticism in men, and the high mean scores on Neuroticism among women were congruent with a study in Egypt (Abdel-Khalek & Eysenck, 1983). There were no significant differences between men and women on the Extraversion and Lie scales. The significantly higher mean score on Anxiety for women than for their male counterparts is consistent with previous findings using the same scale (KUAS) with college students from 10 Arab countries; statistically significant differences were found in seven of the 10 counties (Abdel-Khalek & Alansari, 2004). However, a recent study with Kuwaiti college students reported the only significant difference in personality scale means was on Psychoticism—men had the higher mean score (Abdel-Khalek, 2013). These conflicting findings related to the mean scores on the Eysenck’s subscales may be samplerelated. As expected, the highest correlation coefficient was between Anxiety and Neuroticism scales. This result seems to support Eysenck’s original theory, and is compatible with many previous findings (e.g., Lolas, 1991; Darvill, et al., 1992; Ferrando, 1994; del Barrio, et al., 1997; Gershuny & Sher, 1998; Krueger, et al., 2001; Anderson & Bienvenu, 2011). Watson, Gamez, and Simms (2005) concluded that neuroticism represents a core general risk factor for anxiety symptoms and disorders. Sutton, et al. (2011) reported that neuroticism had the most substantial unique associations with depression symptoms as well as with symptoms of several types of anxiety. The association between Anxiety and Extraversion in this study was negative, but statistically significant only in women. The predictive and practical value of this small correlation is negligible. Previous studies in this domain have yielded mixed results (see Gershuny & Sher, 1998; Meleddu & Guicciardi, 1998). In the original Eysenckian model of personality, neuroticism and extraversion should have a zero correlation (Eysenck, 1957). However, a weak negative correlation is predicted in some samples like the present one. Similarly, although the significant correlation between Neuroticism and Psychoticism in the present study does not support Eysenck’s original theory, both dimensions are related to psychopathology.
21_PR_Abdel-Khalek_FMS_051513_130017.indd 1000
20/08/13 11:34 AM
ANXIETY AND PERSONALITY MODEL
1001
Anxiety and Psychoticism were statistically significantly and positively correlated in both sexes. This association could be elucidated as the two scales refer to a sort of abnormality. It is particularly noteworthy that Anxiety had a weaker correlation with Psychoticism than with Neuroticism. The correlation between Anxiety and the Lie scale was statistically significant and negative only in men. This result indicates that there may be a social desirability interaction with anxiety that is higher in men than women. This needs a separate study. Applying the PCA, two components were retained and accounted for a good part of the total variance for both sexes. These two factors could be labeled “Anxiety-and-Neuroticism vs Extraversion” and “Psychoticism vs Lie”. Stepwise regression revealed that Neuroticism was the main predictor of Anxiety, explaining around 40% of the variance. Therefore, it is safe to conclude that high Neuroticism scores may indicate a predisposition to— and play an etiological role in—the development of anxiety. This result was congruent with previous findings (e.g., Clark, et al., 1994; Gershuny & Sher, 1998; Jorm, et al., 2000; Sharma, 2003; Middleldorp, et al., 2006; Hong & Paunonen, 2011). However, it is important to note that no claims of causality are made; personality traits may serve as diatheses for disorder, concomitants of disorder, or consequences of disorder (Trull & Sher, 1994). One of the limitations of the current investigation is the sample. College student samples mainly consist of healthy, young, and intelligent persons and do not represent the general population. It would be suitable to replicate this study using a more diverse population sample, or with patients. Neuroticism is a correlate of anxiety in this non-Western, understudied sample. It would be helpful for teachers, parents, counselors, and policy and curriculum developers to know about neuroticism among undergraduate students to apply remedial techniques and therapies for high scorers. REFERENCES
ABDEL-KHALEK, A. M. (2000) The Kuwait University Anxiety Scale: psychometric properties. Psychological Reports, 87, 478-492. ABDEL-KHALEK, A. M. (2003) Adequacy of an English version of the Kuwait University Anxiety Scale based on back translation and testing bilingual subjects. Psychological Reports, 93, 1101-1104. ABDEL-KHALEK, A. M. (2007) Anxiety levels in east and west: 18 Arab countries, Germany, Spain, U.K., and U.S.A. Paper presented at the 15th European Congress of Psychiatry, held in Madrid, Spain, March 17-21, 2007. ABDEL-KHALEK, A. M. (2013) Personality dimensions and religiosity among Arab Muslim college students. Personality and Individual Differences, 54, 149-152. ABDEL-KHALEK, A. M. (2004) Normative data on the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire in Kuwaiti College Students. Unpublished manuscript, Kuwait University.
21_PR_Abdel-Khalek_FMS_051513_130017.indd 1001
20/08/13 11:34 AM
1002
A. M. ABDEL-KHALEK
ABDEL-KHALEK, A. M., & ALANSARI, B. M. (2004) Gender differences in anxiety among undergraduates from ten Arab countries. Social Behavior and Personality, 32, 649-655. ABDEL-KHALEK, A. M., & AL-DAMATY, A. A. (2003) The Kuwait University Anxiety Scale: results for 9,031 Saudi students. Psychological Reports, 93, 203-212. ABDEL-KHALEK, A. M., & EYSENCK, S. B. G. (1983) A cross-cultural study of personality: Egypt and England. Research in Behavior and Personality, 3, 215-226. ABDEL-KHALEK, A. M., & LESTER, D. (2003) The Kuwait University Anxiety Scale: a cross-cultural evaluation in Kuwait and United States. Psychological Reports, 93, 1109-1114. ABDEL-KHALEK, A. M., & MALTBY, K. (2009) Differences in anxiety scores of college students from Germany, Spain, the United Kingdom and the USA. Psychological Reports, 104, 624-626. ABDEL-KHALEK, A. M., RESCHKE, K., RUDWAN, S., & TANJOUR, I. (2006) German version of the Kuwait University Anxiety Scale: psychometric parameters. Psychological Reports, 99, 390-395. ABDEL-KHALEK, A. M., & RUDWAN, S. (2001) The Kuwait University Anxiety Scale: reliability and criterion-related validity in Syrian college students. Psychological Reports, 89, 718. ABDEL-KHALEK, A. M., TOMÁS-SÁBADO, J., & GÓMEZ-BENITO, J. (2004) Psychometric parameters of the Spanish version of the Kuwait University Anxiety Scale (S–KUAS). European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 20, 349-357. ALANSARI, B. M. (2002) The Kuwait University Anxiety Scale: a study of its validity, reliability, and correlates among samples from Kuwait University undergraduates. Alexandria University Bulletin of the Faculty of Arts, 38, 1-47. ALANSARI, B. M. (2004) Internal consistency of the Kuwait University Anxiety Scale in ten Arab countries. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 32, 221-224. ANDERSON, A. M., & BIENVENU, O. J. (2011) Personality and psychopathology. International Review of Psychiatry, 23, 234-247. BIENVENU, O. J., & STEIN, M. B. (2003) Personality and anxiety disorders: a review. Journal of Personality Disorders, 17, 139-151. CLARK, L. A., WATSON, D., & MINEKA, S. (1994) Temperament, personality, and the mood and anxiety disorders. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 103, 103-116. COSTA, P. T., & MCCRAE, R. R. (1985) The Neo Personality Inventory manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources. COX, B. J., BORGER, S. C., TAYLOR, S., FUENTES, K., & ROSS, L. M. (1999) Anxiety sensitivity and the five-factor model of personality. Behavior Research and Therapy, 37, 633-641. DARVILL, T. J., JOHNSON, R. C., & DANKO, G. P. (1992) Personality correlates of public and private self consciousness. Personality and Individual Differences, 13, 383-384. DEL BARRIO, V., MORENO-ROSSETT, C., LÓPEZ-MARTINEZ, R., & OLMEDO, M. (1997) Anxiety, depression and personality structure. Personality and Individual Differences, 23, 327-335. EYSENCK, H. J. (1957) The dynamics of anxiety and hysteria. New York: Praeger. EYSENCK, H. J. (1970) The structure of human personality. (3rd ed.) London: Methuen. EYSENCK, H. J. (1997) Personality and experimental psychology: the unification of psychology and the possibility of a paradigm. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 1224-1237.
21_PR_Abdel-Khalek_FMS_051513_130017.indd 1002
20/08/13 11:34 AM
ANXIETY AND PERSONALITY MODEL
1003
EYSENCK, H. J., & EYSENCK, M. (1985) Personality and individual differences: a natural science approach. New York: Plenum Press. EYSENCK, H. J., & EYSENCK, S. B. G. (1975) Manual of the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire. London: Hodder & Stoughton Educational. FEINGOLD, A. (1994) Gender differences in personality: a meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 116, 429-456. FERRANDO, P. J. (1994) Factorial structure of the Revised Children Manifest Anxiety Scale in a Spanish sample: relations with Eysenck Personality Dimensions. Personality and Individual Differences, 16, 693-699. GATER, R., TANSELLA, M., KORTEN, A., TIEMENS, B. G., MAVREAS, V. G., & OLATAWURA, M. O. (1998) Sex differences in the prevalence and detection of depressive and anxiety disorders in general health care settings. Archives of General Psychiatry, 55, 405-413. GERSHUNY, B. S., & SHER, K. J. (1998) The relation between personality and anxiety: findings from a 3-year prospective study. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 107, 252-262. GRAY, J. A. (1982) The neuropsychology of anxiety: an enquiry into the function of the septohippocampal system. New York: Oxford Univer. Press. HETTEMA, J. M., PRESCOTT, C. A., & KENDLER, K. S. (2004) Genetic and environmental sources of covariation between generalized anxiety disorder and neuroticism. American Journal of Psychiatry, 161, 1581-1587. HONG, R. Y., & PAUNONEN, S. V. (2011) Personality vulnerabilities to psychopathology: relations between trait structures and affective-cognitive process. Journal of Personality, 779, 527-561. HURLEY, J. R. (1998) Timidity as a response style to psychological questionnaires. Journal of Psychology, 132, 201-210. JACKSON, C. J. (2002) Mapping Gray’s model of personality onto the Eysenck Personality Profiler (EPP). Personality and Individual Differences, 32, 495-507. JORM, A. F., CHRISTENSEN, H., HENDERSON, A. S., JACOMB, P. A., KORTEN, A. E., & RODGERS, B. (2000) Predicting anxiety and depression from personality: is there a synergistic effect of neuroticism and extraversion? Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109, 145-149. JYLHÄ, P., & ISOMETSIÄ, E. (2006) The relationship of neuroticism and extraversion to symptoms of anxiety and depression in the general population. Depression and Anxiety, 23, 281-289. KLINE, P. (2000) Handbook of psychological testing. (2nd ed.) London: Routledge. KRUEGER, R. F., MCGUE, M., & IACONO, W. G. (2001) The higher-order structure of common DSM mental disorders: internalization, externalization, and their connections to personality. Personality and Individual Differences, 30, 1245-1259. LOLAS, F. (1991) Personality effects on verbally expressed anxiety and hostility. Personality and Individual Differences, 12, 581-584. MACKINAW-KOONS, B., & VASEY, M. W. (2000) Considering sex differences in anxiety and its disorders across the life span: a construct-validation approach. Applied and Preventive Psychology, 9, 191-209. MCFATTER, R. M. (1994) Interactions predicting mood from extraversion and neuroticism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 570-578. MELEDDU, M., & GUICCIARDI, M. (1998) Self-knowledge and social desirability of personality traits. European Journal of Personality, 12, 151-168.
21_PR_Abdel-Khalek_FMS_051513_130017.indd 1003
20/08/13 11:34 AM
1004
A. M. ABDEL-KHALEK
MIDDELDORP, C. M., CATH, D. C., VAN DEN BERG, M., BEEM, A. L., VAN DYCK, R., & BOOMSMA, D. I. (2006) The association of personality with anxious and depressive psychopathology. In T. Canli (Ed.), Biology of personality and individual differences. New York: Guilford. Pp. 251-272. NORTON, G. R., COX, B. J., HEWITT, P. L., & MCLEOD, L. (1997) Personality factors associated with generalized and non-generalized social anxiety. Personality and Individual Differences, 22, 655-660. OSLER, W. (1899) Address to the students of the Albany Medical College. Albany Medical Annals, 20, 307-309. PIGOTT, T. A. (1999) Gender differences in the epidemiology and treatment of anxiety disorders. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 60(Suppl. 18), 4-15. SHARMA, S. C. (2003) Generalized anxiety disorder and personality traits. Kathmandu University Medical Journal, 1, 248-250. SPSS, Inc. (2009) SPSS: Statistical data analysis. Base 18.0, users guide. Chicago, IL: Author. SUTTON, J. M., MINEKA, S., ZINBARG, R. E., CRASKE, M. G., GRIFFITH, J. W., ROSE, R. D., WATERS, A. M., NAZARIAN, M., & MOR, N. (2011) The relationships of personality and cognitive styles with self-reported symptoms of depression and anxiety. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 35, 381-393. TRULL, T. J., & SHER, K. J. (1994) Relationship between the five-factor model of personality and axis I disorders in a nonclinical sample. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 103, 350-360. WATSON, D., GAMEZ, W., & SIMMS, L. J. (2005) Basic dimensions of temperament and their relations to anxiety and depression: a symptom-based perspective. Journal of Research in Personality, 39, 46-66. WEISMAN, M. (1985) The epidemiology of anxiety disorders: rates, risks and familial patterns. In J. M. Masser & H. Tuma (Eds.), Anxiety and anxiety disorders. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. WILLIAMS, D. G. (1990) Effects of psychoticism, extraversion, and neuroticism in current mood: a statistical review of six studies. Personality and Individual Differences, 11, 613-630. XIE, D., LEONG, F. T. L., & FENG, S. (2008) Culture-specific personality correlates of anxiety among Chinese and Caucasian college students. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 11, 163-174. YONKERS, K. A., & GURGUIS, G. (1995) Gender differences in the prevalence and expression of anxiety disorders. In M. V. Seeman (Ed.), Gender and psychopathology. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press. Pp. 113-130. Accepted May 15, 2013.
21_PR_Abdel-Khalek_FMS_051513_130017.indd 1004
20/08/13 11:34 AM
Copyright of Psychological Reports is the property of Ammons Scientific, Ltd. and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use.
CONSTRUCTION OF ANXIETY AND DIMENSIONAL PERSONALITY MODEL IN COLLEGE STUDENTS1, 2 AHMED M. ABDEL-KHALEK University of Kuwait University of Alexandria, Egypt Summary.—A sample of 402 volunteer male (n = 156) and female (n = 246) Kuwaiti undergraduates responded to the Arabic versions of the Kuwait University Anxiety Scale and the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire. The latter questionnaire has four subscales: Psychoticism, Extraversion, Neuroticism, and Lie. Women obtained a higher mean score on Kuwait University Anxiety Scale and Neuroticism than did men, while men had a higher mean score on Psychoticism than did women. Factor analysis of the intercorrelations between the five variables, separately conducted for men and women, gave rise to two orthogonal factors called Anxiety-and-Neuroticism vs Extraversion, and Psychoticism vs Lie. Stepwise regression revealed that Neuroticism was the main predictor of anxiety. It was concluded that persons with high Neuroticism scores may be more vulnerable to anxiety than those with low scores.
The relation between personality and psychopathology has been recognized by psychologists, psychiatrists, and physicians for a long time; Osler (1899) expressed this as, “knowing the person who has the disease is as important as knowing the disease that the person has.” There are four goals of studying the relationships between personality and psychopathology: to aid understanding of the etiology of psychiatric disorders and provide new avenues for research, to guide efforts in prevention of disorders, to improve accuracy of prognosis, and to help explain comorbidities. Clinical experience has suggested that certain individuals may be more vulnerable to psychiatric illness based on their personality. Premorbid personality affects the prognosis of psychiatric illness and illness in turn may have effects on personality (Anderson & Bienvenu, 2011). The present study examined the association between anxiety and the basic dimensions of personality, i.e., psychoticism, extraversion, neuroticism, and social desirability or Lie, as measured with the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire. Therefore, the main research goal was to assess whether personality plays a predisposing role in anxiety. This investigation tried to answer this question using an under-studied and under-represented sample in the psychological literature, i.e., Arabic-speaking college students. Kuwaiti samAddress correspondence to Ahmed Abdel-Khalek, Department of Psychology, College of Social Sciences, University of Kuwait, P. O. Box 68168, Kaifan, Code No. 71962, Kuwait or e-mail ([email protected]). 2 The present research was supported by Kuwait University under Grant No. OP01/11. The author gratefully acknowledges the able assistance of the Research Administration. 1
DOI 10.2466/15.09.PR0.112.3.992-1004
21_PR_Abdel-Khalek_FMS_051513_130017.indd 992
ISSN 0033-2941
20/08/13 11:34 AM
ANXIETY AND PERSONALITY MODEL
993
ples have scored high on anxiety (Abdel-Khalek, 2007), and have strong sex differences in anxiety, with women scoring higher (Abdel-Khalek & Alansari, 2004). Cross-cultural differences may affect the association between anxiety and personality. For example, Xie, Leong, and Feng (2008) found culture-specific personality correlates of anxiety, i.e., the strength of the correlation between personality factors and anxiety was different for two samples of Chinese and Caucasian college students. The majority of previous studies have investigated the associations between anxiety and both neuroticism and extraversion. In the design of the present study the relation between anxiety and psychoticism is also explored, to replicate and extend previous findings on a sample from an understudied population. There has been a resurgence of interest in the relation between personality and psychopathology, especially anxiety and depression, using clinical and non-clinical samples (e.g., Gershuny & Sher, 1998; Jorm, Christensen, Henderson, Jacomb, Korten, & Rodgers, 2000; Krueger, McGue, & Iacono, 2001; Bienvenu & Stein, 2003; Anderson & Bienvenu, 2011; Sutton, Mineka, Zinbarg, Craske, Griffith, Rose, et al., 2011). One motive of this endeavor is to elucidate the etiological relevance of personality to anxiety. The general hypothesis is that personality may predispose to psychological disorders such as anxiety and depression. Eysenck and Eysenck (1985), on the basis of conditionability, posited that neuroticism and introversion may predispose an individual to anxiety. Clark, Watson, and Mineka (1994) stated that negative affectivity (or neuroticism) appears to be a factor in the development of anxiety and depression. Positive affectivity (one aspect of extraversion) is related specifically and negatively to depression, and may be a risk factor for its development. Gray (1982) suggested that neuroticism and extraversion dimensions could be combined to construct two categories: the neurotic-introvert and stable extrovert, reflecting the activity in the behavioral impulsivity-inhibition system and indicating a person’s vulnerability to anxiety and depression (Middeldorp, Cath, van den Berg, Beem, van Dyck, & Boomsma, 2006). Neuroticism reflects emotional instability. It is related to the visceral brain, more often called the limbic system, which regulates emotional expression and controls autonomic responses. Extraversion reflects sociability, liveliness, impulsivity, and the ease and pleasure felt in the company of others. Extraversion is thought to be related to the ascending reticular activating system, with higher arousal in introverts and higher inhibition in extroverts (Middeldorp, et al., 2006). Jackson (2002) noted, however, that Gray’s model provides only a partial description of personality factors and how they might relate to psychopathology. Eysenck (1957, 1970, 1997) has published the most extensive studies of how personality may relate to anxiety. Eysenck’s “giant three” model
21_PR_Abdel-Khalek_FMS_051513_130017.indd 993
20/08/13 11:34 AM
994
A. M. ABDEL-KHALEK
of neuroticism, extraversion, and psychoticism is a widely respected trait theory, based on factor analysis and a psychobiological perspective and has a wide international following (Jackson, 2002). However, most research in this area has focused on neuroticism and extraversion, or traits related to these personality dimensions, using English-speaking participants. Results have consistently indicated that neuroticism is positively related to anxiety, with both clinical and non-clinical samples (Lolas, 1991; Darvill, Johnson, & Danko, 1992; Ferrando, 1994; del Barrio, Moreno-Rossett, López-Martinez, & Olmedo, 1997; Gershuny & Sher, 1998). Hettema, Prescott, and Kendler (2004) concluded that neuroticism is a vulnerability factor in anxiety. Middeldorp, et al., (2006) summarized several studies and concluded that high neuroticism and low extraversion are related to depression as well as anxiety, supporting Eysenck’s theory. More recently, Hong and Paunonen (2011) stated that high neuroticism is associated with a broad range of anxiety and mood disorders, whereas low extraversion is associated specifically with social phobia, agoraphobia, and depression. Some studies have suggested a negative relation between anxiety and extraversion, albeit weaker than the relation of anxiety and neuroticism (Ferrando, 1994; Meleddu & Guicciardi, 1998). However, other studies have not supported this finding (Gershuny & Sher, 1998). Based on the Eysenck’s dimensional model, emotions are represented in a circumflex figure: depression (and anxiety) is related to high neuroticism and low extraversion scores; happiness is characterized by low neuroticism and high extraversion scores; and behavioral problems are associated with high neuroticism and high extraversion scores (del Barrio, et al., 1997). More recently, Jylhä and Isometsiä (2006) found that symptoms of anxiety correlated positively with neuroticism (r = .69, p < .001) and negatively with extraversion (r = –.36, p < .001). Cox, Borger, Taylor, Fuentes, and Ross (1999) examined the relations between anxiety sensitivity and the higher-order and lower-order dimensions of the Big Five model of personality. Regression analyses indicated that only a few scales significantly predicted anxiety sensitivity: the higher-order domains of neuroticism and the lower-order neuroticism facets of anxiety and selfconsciousness (positively), and extraversion (negatively). Other studies have investigated interactions among neuroticism, extraversion, and anxiety. McFatter (1994) explored the relations of neuroticism and extraversion with measures of affect. He found that when the measures of negative affect and depression were the dependent variables, there was a significant interaction of extraversion and neuroticism. Gershuny and Sher (1998) examined the effect of personality dimensions of neuroticism, extraversion, and psychoticism on anxiety and depression in a three-year prospective study of primarily undergraduate
21_PR_Abdel-Khalek_FMS_051513_130017.indd 994
20/08/13 11:34 AM
ANXIETY AND PERSONALITY MODEL
995
students. They found an interaction between neuroticism and extraversion predicted both global anxiety and depression three years after initial assessment. They concluded that high neuroticism and low extraversion may play an important predisposing, etiological role in anxiety. Jorm, et al. (2000) tried to replicate the two aforementioned studies using data from two community samples. Both studies found that neuroticism predicted anxiety and depression, but there was no interaction of neuroticism and extraversion. On the basis of the DSM nomenclature of anxiety disorders, Norton, Cox, Hewitt, and McLeod (1997) found that the non-generalized social anxiety was associated negatively with extraversion, whereas generalized social anxiety was more related to, and mostly predicted by, neuroticism. In a similar vein, Sharma (2003) found that neuroticism was correlated more strongly with general anxiety disorder than other personality parameters. There has been little research and contradictory results relating anxiety and psychoticism. Lolas (1991) found a positive relation between anxiety and psychoticism. Similarly, Gershuny and Sher (1998) reported a moderate relation, and Williams (1990) reported a weak correlation, whereas Darvill, et al. (1992) found no relation between anxiety and psychoticism. The association between psychopathology, including anxiety measures, and social desirability or Lie scale was a subject of several studies reporting positive relations. Costa and McCrae (1985) acknowledged that scores on the NEO–PI might be influenced by response style. Hurley (1998) stated that we should directly address, rather than discount or ignore, the role of response styles. Several studies have reported sex-related differences in anxiety, especially in Arabic-speaking samples (Weisman, 1985; Yonkers & Gurguis, 1995; Gater, Tansella, Korten, Tiemens, Mavreas, & Olatawura, 1998; Pigott, 1999; Mackinaw-Koons & Vasey, 2000; Abdel-Khalek & Alansari, 2004). Sex-related differences in personality have been reported (Feingold, 1994). In two large samples (N = 1,571; N = 864) of Kuwaiti undergraduates, men obtained significantly higher mean scores on psychoticism and extraversion than did women, while women obtained higher mean scores on anxiety and neuroticism than did men (Abdel-Khalek, 2000, unpublished; see Table 1 below). In this study, a sample from an understudied culture, Kuwaiti Muslims, was recruited. Based on previous results and theory: Hypothesis 1. There will be significant sex differences: men will have a higher mean score on psychoticism, whereas women will have higher mean scores on anxiety and neuroticism.
21_PR_Abdel-Khalek_FMS_051513_130017.indd 995
20/08/13 11:34 AM
996
A. M. ABDEL-KHALEK
Hypothesis 2. There will be statistically significant correlations between anxiety and both neuroticism and psychoticism. Hypothesis 3. In a principal components analysis of personality and anxiety measures, two factors will be extracted. Hypothesis 4. Neuroticism will be the main predictor of anxiety. METHOD Participants A convenience sample of 402 volunteer Kuwait University college students (156 men, 246 women) was recruited. They were from several majors in College of Social Sciences. All of them were Muslims and Kuwaiti citizens. Their ages ranged from 17 to 46 years. For men, M age = 24.1 yr. (SD = 6.3) and for women, M age = 21.1 yr. (SD = 2.5) (t400 = 6.7, p < .001). Questionnaires The Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ; Eysenck & Eysenck, 1975).—The Arabic form (Abdel-Khalek & Eysenck, 1983) of this scale was used. This version contains 91 items with a Yes/No response format. The EPQ measures the following four dimensions: Psychoticism, Extraversion, Neuroticism, and Lie with 25, 20, 23, and 23 items, respectively. Cronbach α reliabilities were .72, .77, .86, and .79, respectively. The validity of the scale is supported by extensive research on Arab participants (e.g., Abdel-Khalek & Eysenck, 1983; Abdel-Khalek, 2013). The Kuwait University Anxiety Scale (KUAS; Abdel-Khalek, 2000, 2003).—This scale measures trait and not state anxiety. It has comparable Arabic, English, German, and Spanish versions. It consists of 20 brief statements. Each statement is answered on a 4-point intensity scale, anchored by 1: Rarely and 4: Always. In previous studies on Kuwaiti samples, using the Arabic version, reliabilities of the scale ranged from .88 to .92 (Cronbach’s α), and between .70 and .93 (test-retest), indicating good internal consistency and temporal stability. The criterion-related validity of the scale ranged between .70 and .88 (five criteria), while the loadings of the scale on a general factor of anxiety were .93 and .95 in two-factor analyses, supporting the scale’s criterion-related and factor validity. Discriminant validity of the scale has also been demonstrated. Factor analysis of the scale items yielded three factors labeled Cognitive/ Affective, Subjective, and Somatic anxiety. However, all previous studies on this scale with participants of different Arab and Western nationalities (Abdel-Khalek, 2007) have used the total scale score because of its high reliability. The scale has displayed good psychometric properties in large samples of Kuwaiti and Arab undergraduates (Alansari, 2002, 2004), Spanish participants (Abdel-Khalek, Tomás-Sábado, & Gómez-
21_PR_Abdel-Khalek_FMS_051513_130017.indd 996
20/08/13 11:34 AM
997
ANXIETY AND PERSONALITY MODEL
Benito, 2004), Saudi and Syrian participants (Abdel-Khalek & Rudwan, 2001; Abdel-Khalek & Al-Damaty, 2003), American participants (AbdelKhalek & Lester, 2003), German participants (Abdel-Khalek, Reschke, Rudwan, & Tanjour, 2006), and also in British samples (Abdel-Khalek & Maltby, 2009). Procedure The EPQ and KUAS, in their Arabic versions, were administered anonymously to students during small group sessions in their regular classrooms during university hours in the academic year 2009/2010. Statistical Analysis SPSS (2009) was used for the statistical analyses of the data. Descriptive statistics, t tests, effect size, and Pearson product moment correlations were calculated. A principal components analysis (PCA) was applied with the Kaiser rule. Then, the unrotated factors were rotated to a simple structure using the direct Varimax method of orthogonal rotation. Stepwise regression was also applied. TABLE 1 CRONBACH’S α RELIABILITY, MEAN (M), STANDARD DEVIATION (SD), AND SEX COMPARISONS FOR CURRENT SAMPLE Scale Anxiety
α .90
Men (n = 156)
Women (n = 246)
M
SD
M
SD
35.22
10.24
37.79
9.10
t
p
d
2.63
.009
.26 .43
Psychoticism
.71
5.15
3.38
3.82
2.57
4.23
.0001
Extraversion
.72
12.99
3.82
12.45
3.97
1.34
ns
Neuroticism
.87
11.76
5.16
13.56
4.53
3.66
.0001
Lie .71 12.25 4.53 12.98 Note.—All sex differences had small effect sizes.
4.16
1.67
ns
.37
RESULTS Table 1 provides the descriptive statistics of the KUAS and EPQ subscales among men and women. As can be seen from this table, Cronbach’s alpha reliabilities ranged from .71 to .90, indicating acceptable to good reliabilities. It is particularly noteworthy that the KUAS and Neuroticism had the highest alpha coefficients (.90 and .87, respectively) whereas the alphas for Psychoticism, Extraversion, and Lie ranged between .71 and .72. Men obtained a statistically significantly higher mean score on psychoticism than women, while women had statistically significantly higher mean scores on Anxiety and Neuroticism than men. The effect sizes were small. As for Extraversion and Lie subscales, no sex differences were found.
21_PR_Abdel-Khalek_FMS_051513_130017.indd 997
20/08/13 11:34 AM
998
A. M. ABDEL-KHALEK TABLE 2 MEAN (M), STANDARD DEVIATION (SD), T-RATIO, AND EFFECT SIZE (D) OF SEX DIFFERENCES ON ANXIETY AND EYSENCK PERSONALITY QUESTIONNAIRE IN A NORMATIVE SAMPLE OF KUWAITI COLLEGE STUDENTS Scale
Men
Women
t
d
10.6
10.27
.52†
2.4
5.98
.41*
3.8
2.21
n
M
SD
n
M
SD
Anxiety
804
35.3
9.4
767
40.5
Psychoticism
385
4.9
3.3
479
3.7
Extraversion
385
13.2
4.1
479
12.6
Neuroticism
385
12.1
4.5
479
14.8
4.1
9.12
Lie 385 12.9 3.8 *Small effect size. †Medium effect size.
479
13.2
3.7
1.17
.62†
TABLE 3 PEARSON CORRELATION IN MEN (N = 156; LOWER MATRIX) AND WOMEN (N = 246; UPPER MATRIX) Scale
A
Anxiety (A) Psychoticism (P) Extraversion (E) Neuroticism (N)
P
E
N
L
.17†
–.19†
.65†
–.12
.21†
–.39†
–.28†
–.03
.26† –.12
.08 .03
.58†
.24†
–.26†
Lie (L) –.26† *p < .05, †p < .01 (2-tailed).
–.37†
–.15
–.13* –.21†
The present results (Table 1) are compared with normative data for scales derived from a normative sample of Kuwait university college students (Table 2). Inspection shows that statistically significant sex differences were found for Psychoticism and Extraversion scales, on which men obtained high mean scores, whereas women had high mean scores on Anxiety and Neuroticism. The sex effect sizes were small to medium. There is good similarity between the descriptive statistics in Tables 1 and 2 and the observed differences, except the high mean score on Extraversion in men in Table 2. In general, the mean scores in the present study were not very different from the normative data. Table 3 presents the Pearson correlations between the total scores on the Kuwaiti University Anxiety Scale and the subscales of the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire, separately for men and women. Inspection of this table reveals that the highest (positive) correlation in the two matrices was that between the Kuwait University Anxiety Scale and Neuroticism. Following this correlation came the (negative) correlation between Psychoticism and Lie in both samples. Statistically significant correlations were found between Psychoticism and Neuroticism scales (positive), Neuroticism and Extraversion scales, and Neuroticism and Lie scales (negative). The last mentioned results are relevant for both men and women.
21_PR_Abdel-Khalek_FMS_051513_130017.indd 998
20/08/13 11:34 AM
999
ANXIETY AND PERSONALITY MODEL
To test the factor structure of the study variables, the correlation matrices for men and women were subjected separately to PCA with iteration. Based on the Bartlett’s test, skewness, and kurtosis, factor analysis was justified and the matrices were factorable. The Kaiser criterion, i.e., the eigenvalue greater than or equal to 1.0, and the scree test followed. Table 4 displays the two extracted factors after orthogonal rotation by Varimax. The two factors accounted for a reasonable amount of the total variance—65.1% and 64.3% in men and women, respectively. On the basis of a loading of .50, the first factor may be labeled, among men and women, TABLE 4 ROTATED FACTORS (VARIMAX) Men
Scale
Factor I
Anxiety (A)
Women Factor II
.72
.38
Psychoticism (P)
.22
Extraversion (E)
–.66
Neuroticism (N)
Factor I
Factor II
.82
.17
.70
.13
.80
.48
–.58
.14
.83
.20
.86
.19
Lie (L)
–.08
–.80
.02
–.85
Eigenvalue
1.70
1.56
1.78
1.44
33.91
31.13
35.56
% variance
Total variance 65.04 Note.—Boldface type indicates loadings above the criterion of .50.
28.71 64.27
“Anxiety-and-Neuroticism vs Extraversion.” The second factor may be labeled: “Psychoticism vs Lie.” Table 5 reports the stepwise regression results, in which Anxiety was the dependent variable. Independent variables of personality scales, age, and sex were entered into the model successively, based on their ability to affect the dependent variable. As can be seen from this table, the model was statistically significant (F = 132.57, p < .0001). The model explained 40.2% of the total variance in Anxiety scores. The main predictor of Anxiety TABLE 5 STEPWISE REGRESSION FOR PREDICTING ANXIETY IN MEN AND WOMEN (N = 402) Scale Neuroticism Lie
B
β
t
p
R2
1.22
.62
15.72
.0001
.396
–0.16
–.07
–1.85
.0660
.402
14.03
.0001
Constant 23.15 Note.—F = 132.57; p < .0001.
21_PR_Abdel-Khalek_FMS_051513_130017.indd 999
20/08/13 11:34 AM
1000
A. M. ABDEL-KHALEK
was Neuroticism, which explained 39.6% of the variance in the first step of the regression. Lie scale (negative) was added in the second step and explained 0.6%. Extraversion, Psychoticism, age, and sex were excluded. DISCUSSION Cronbach’s α reliability of the questionnaires used ranged between .71 and .90, indicating acceptable to good internal consistency. Kline (2000) suggested that reliabilities of .70 or higher are acceptable to validate research results. The sex-related differences (see Table 1) were statistically significant in which women had the high scores on Anxiety and Neuroticism, and men had the high mean score on Psychoticism. The high mean score on Psychoticism in men, and the high mean scores on Neuroticism among women were congruent with a study in Egypt (Abdel-Khalek & Eysenck, 1983). There were no significant differences between men and women on the Extraversion and Lie scales. The significantly higher mean score on Anxiety for women than for their male counterparts is consistent with previous findings using the same scale (KUAS) with college students from 10 Arab countries; statistically significant differences were found in seven of the 10 counties (Abdel-Khalek & Alansari, 2004). However, a recent study with Kuwaiti college students reported the only significant difference in personality scale means was on Psychoticism—men had the higher mean score (Abdel-Khalek, 2013). These conflicting findings related to the mean scores on the Eysenck’s subscales may be samplerelated. As expected, the highest correlation coefficient was between Anxiety and Neuroticism scales. This result seems to support Eysenck’s original theory, and is compatible with many previous findings (e.g., Lolas, 1991; Darvill, et al., 1992; Ferrando, 1994; del Barrio, et al., 1997; Gershuny & Sher, 1998; Krueger, et al., 2001; Anderson & Bienvenu, 2011). Watson, Gamez, and Simms (2005) concluded that neuroticism represents a core general risk factor for anxiety symptoms and disorders. Sutton, et al. (2011) reported that neuroticism had the most substantial unique associations with depression symptoms as well as with symptoms of several types of anxiety. The association between Anxiety and Extraversion in this study was negative, but statistically significant only in women. The predictive and practical value of this small correlation is negligible. Previous studies in this domain have yielded mixed results (see Gershuny & Sher, 1998; Meleddu & Guicciardi, 1998). In the original Eysenckian model of personality, neuroticism and extraversion should have a zero correlation (Eysenck, 1957). However, a weak negative correlation is predicted in some samples like the present one. Similarly, although the significant correlation between Neuroticism and Psychoticism in the present study does not support Eysenck’s original theory, both dimensions are related to psychopathology.
21_PR_Abdel-Khalek_FMS_051513_130017.indd 1000
20/08/13 11:34 AM
ANXIETY AND PERSONALITY MODEL
1001
Anxiety and Psychoticism were statistically significantly and positively correlated in both sexes. This association could be elucidated as the two scales refer to a sort of abnormality. It is particularly noteworthy that Anxiety had a weaker correlation with Psychoticism than with Neuroticism. The correlation between Anxiety and the Lie scale was statistically significant and negative only in men. This result indicates that there may be a social desirability interaction with anxiety that is higher in men than women. This needs a separate study. Applying the PCA, two components were retained and accounted for a good part of the total variance for both sexes. These two factors could be labeled “Anxiety-and-Neuroticism vs Extraversion” and “Psychoticism vs Lie”. Stepwise regression revealed that Neuroticism was the main predictor of Anxiety, explaining around 40% of the variance. Therefore, it is safe to conclude that high Neuroticism scores may indicate a predisposition to— and play an etiological role in—the development of anxiety. This result was congruent with previous findings (e.g., Clark, et al., 1994; Gershuny & Sher, 1998; Jorm, et al., 2000; Sharma, 2003; Middleldorp, et al., 2006; Hong & Paunonen, 2011). However, it is important to note that no claims of causality are made; personality traits may serve as diatheses for disorder, concomitants of disorder, or consequences of disorder (Trull & Sher, 1994). One of the limitations of the current investigation is the sample. College student samples mainly consist of healthy, young, and intelligent persons and do not represent the general population. It would be suitable to replicate this study using a more diverse population sample, or with patients. Neuroticism is a correlate of anxiety in this non-Western, understudied sample. It would be helpful for teachers, parents, counselors, and policy and curriculum developers to know about neuroticism among undergraduate students to apply remedial techniques and therapies for high scorers. REFERENCES
ABDEL-KHALEK, A. M. (2000) The Kuwait University Anxiety Scale: psychometric properties. Psychological Reports, 87, 478-492. ABDEL-KHALEK, A. M. (2003) Adequacy of an English version of the Kuwait University Anxiety Scale based on back translation and testing bilingual subjects. Psychological Reports, 93, 1101-1104. ABDEL-KHALEK, A. M. (2007) Anxiety levels in east and west: 18 Arab countries, Germany, Spain, U.K., and U.S.A. Paper presented at the 15th European Congress of Psychiatry, held in Madrid, Spain, March 17-21, 2007. ABDEL-KHALEK, A. M. (2013) Personality dimensions and religiosity among Arab Muslim college students. Personality and Individual Differences, 54, 149-152. ABDEL-KHALEK, A. M. (2004) Normative data on the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire in Kuwaiti College Students. Unpublished manuscript, Kuwait University.
21_PR_Abdel-Khalek_FMS_051513_130017.indd 1001
20/08/13 11:34 AM
1002
A. M. ABDEL-KHALEK
ABDEL-KHALEK, A. M., & ALANSARI, B. M. (2004) Gender differences in anxiety among undergraduates from ten Arab countries. Social Behavior and Personality, 32, 649-655. ABDEL-KHALEK, A. M., & AL-DAMATY, A. A. (2003) The Kuwait University Anxiety Scale: results for 9,031 Saudi students. Psychological Reports, 93, 203-212. ABDEL-KHALEK, A. M., & EYSENCK, S. B. G. (1983) A cross-cultural study of personality: Egypt and England. Research in Behavior and Personality, 3, 215-226. ABDEL-KHALEK, A. M., & LESTER, D. (2003) The Kuwait University Anxiety Scale: a cross-cultural evaluation in Kuwait and United States. Psychological Reports, 93, 1109-1114. ABDEL-KHALEK, A. M., & MALTBY, K. (2009) Differences in anxiety scores of college students from Germany, Spain, the United Kingdom and the USA. Psychological Reports, 104, 624-626. ABDEL-KHALEK, A. M., RESCHKE, K., RUDWAN, S., & TANJOUR, I. (2006) German version of the Kuwait University Anxiety Scale: psychometric parameters. Psychological Reports, 99, 390-395. ABDEL-KHALEK, A. M., & RUDWAN, S. (2001) The Kuwait University Anxiety Scale: reliability and criterion-related validity in Syrian college students. Psychological Reports, 89, 718. ABDEL-KHALEK, A. M., TOMÁS-SÁBADO, J., & GÓMEZ-BENITO, J. (2004) Psychometric parameters of the Spanish version of the Kuwait University Anxiety Scale (S–KUAS). European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 20, 349-357. ALANSARI, B. M. (2002) The Kuwait University Anxiety Scale: a study of its validity, reliability, and correlates among samples from Kuwait University undergraduates. Alexandria University Bulletin of the Faculty of Arts, 38, 1-47. ALANSARI, B. M. (2004) Internal consistency of the Kuwait University Anxiety Scale in ten Arab countries. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 32, 221-224. ANDERSON, A. M., & BIENVENU, O. J. (2011) Personality and psychopathology. International Review of Psychiatry, 23, 234-247. BIENVENU, O. J., & STEIN, M. B. (2003) Personality and anxiety disorders: a review. Journal of Personality Disorders, 17, 139-151. CLARK, L. A., WATSON, D., & MINEKA, S. (1994) Temperament, personality, and the mood and anxiety disorders. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 103, 103-116. COSTA, P. T., & MCCRAE, R. R. (1985) The Neo Personality Inventory manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources. COX, B. J., BORGER, S. C., TAYLOR, S., FUENTES, K., & ROSS, L. M. (1999) Anxiety sensitivity and the five-factor model of personality. Behavior Research and Therapy, 37, 633-641. DARVILL, T. J., JOHNSON, R. C., & DANKO, G. P. (1992) Personality correlates of public and private self consciousness. Personality and Individual Differences, 13, 383-384. DEL BARRIO, V., MORENO-ROSSETT, C., LÓPEZ-MARTINEZ, R., & OLMEDO, M. (1997) Anxiety, depression and personality structure. Personality and Individual Differences, 23, 327-335. EYSENCK, H. J. (1957) The dynamics of anxiety and hysteria. New York: Praeger. EYSENCK, H. J. (1970) The structure of human personality. (3rd ed.) London: Methuen. EYSENCK, H. J. (1997) Personality and experimental psychology: the unification of psychology and the possibility of a paradigm. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 1224-1237.
21_PR_Abdel-Khalek_FMS_051513_130017.indd 1002
20/08/13 11:34 AM
ANXIETY AND PERSONALITY MODEL
1003
EYSENCK, H. J., & EYSENCK, M. (1985) Personality and individual differences: a natural science approach. New York: Plenum Press. EYSENCK, H. J., & EYSENCK, S. B. G. (1975) Manual of the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire. London: Hodder & Stoughton Educational. FEINGOLD, A. (1994) Gender differences in personality: a meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 116, 429-456. FERRANDO, P. J. (1994) Factorial structure of the Revised Children Manifest Anxiety Scale in a Spanish sample: relations with Eysenck Personality Dimensions. Personality and Individual Differences, 16, 693-699. GATER, R., TANSELLA, M., KORTEN, A., TIEMENS, B. G., MAVREAS, V. G., & OLATAWURA, M. O. (1998) Sex differences in the prevalence and detection of depressive and anxiety disorders in general health care settings. Archives of General Psychiatry, 55, 405-413. GERSHUNY, B. S., & SHER, K. J. (1998) The relation between personality and anxiety: findings from a 3-year prospective study. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 107, 252-262. GRAY, J. A. (1982) The neuropsychology of anxiety: an enquiry into the function of the septohippocampal system. New York: Oxford Univer. Press. HETTEMA, J. M., PRESCOTT, C. A., & KENDLER, K. S. (2004) Genetic and environmental sources of covariation between generalized anxiety disorder and neuroticism. American Journal of Psychiatry, 161, 1581-1587. HONG, R. Y., & PAUNONEN, S. V. (2011) Personality vulnerabilities to psychopathology: relations between trait structures and affective-cognitive process. Journal of Personality, 779, 527-561. HURLEY, J. R. (1998) Timidity as a response style to psychological questionnaires. Journal of Psychology, 132, 201-210. JACKSON, C. J. (2002) Mapping Gray’s model of personality onto the Eysenck Personality Profiler (EPP). Personality and Individual Differences, 32, 495-507. JORM, A. F., CHRISTENSEN, H., HENDERSON, A. S., JACOMB, P. A., KORTEN, A. E., & RODGERS, B. (2000) Predicting anxiety and depression from personality: is there a synergistic effect of neuroticism and extraversion? Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109, 145-149. JYLHÄ, P., & ISOMETSIÄ, E. (2006) The relationship of neuroticism and extraversion to symptoms of anxiety and depression in the general population. Depression and Anxiety, 23, 281-289. KLINE, P. (2000) Handbook of psychological testing. (2nd ed.) London: Routledge. KRUEGER, R. F., MCGUE, M., & IACONO, W. G. (2001) The higher-order structure of common DSM mental disorders: internalization, externalization, and their connections to personality. Personality and Individual Differences, 30, 1245-1259. LOLAS, F. (1991) Personality effects on verbally expressed anxiety and hostility. Personality and Individual Differences, 12, 581-584. MACKINAW-KOONS, B., & VASEY, M. W. (2000) Considering sex differences in anxiety and its disorders across the life span: a construct-validation approach. Applied and Preventive Psychology, 9, 191-209. MCFATTER, R. M. (1994) Interactions predicting mood from extraversion and neuroticism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 570-578. MELEDDU, M., & GUICCIARDI, M. (1998) Self-knowledge and social desirability of personality traits. European Journal of Personality, 12, 151-168.
21_PR_Abdel-Khalek_FMS_051513_130017.indd 1003
20/08/13 11:34 AM
1004
A. M. ABDEL-KHALEK
MIDDELDORP, C. M., CATH, D. C., VAN DEN BERG, M., BEEM, A. L., VAN DYCK, R., & BOOMSMA, D. I. (2006) The association of personality with anxious and depressive psychopathology. In T. Canli (Ed.), Biology of personality and individual differences. New York: Guilford. Pp. 251-272. NORTON, G. R., COX, B. J., HEWITT, P. L., & MCLEOD, L. (1997) Personality factors associated with generalized and non-generalized social anxiety. Personality and Individual Differences, 22, 655-660. OSLER, W. (1899) Address to the students of the Albany Medical College. Albany Medical Annals, 20, 307-309. PIGOTT, T. A. (1999) Gender differences in the epidemiology and treatment of anxiety disorders. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 60(Suppl. 18), 4-15. SHARMA, S. C. (2003) Generalized anxiety disorder and personality traits. Kathmandu University Medical Journal, 1, 248-250. SPSS, Inc. (2009) SPSS: Statistical data analysis. Base 18.0, users guide. Chicago, IL: Author. SUTTON, J. M., MINEKA, S., ZINBARG, R. E., CRASKE, M. G., GRIFFITH, J. W., ROSE, R. D., WATERS, A. M., NAZARIAN, M., & MOR, N. (2011) The relationships of personality and cognitive styles with self-reported symptoms of depression and anxiety. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 35, 381-393. TRULL, T. J., & SHER, K. J. (1994) Relationship between the five-factor model of personality and axis I disorders in a nonclinical sample. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 103, 350-360. WATSON, D., GAMEZ, W., & SIMMS, L. J. (2005) Basic dimensions of temperament and their relations to anxiety and depression: a symptom-based perspective. Journal of Research in Personality, 39, 46-66. WEISMAN, M. (1985) The epidemiology of anxiety disorders: rates, risks and familial patterns. In J. M. Masser & H. Tuma (Eds.), Anxiety and anxiety disorders. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. WILLIAMS, D. G. (1990) Effects of psychoticism, extraversion, and neuroticism in current mood: a statistical review of six studies. Personality and Individual Differences, 11, 613-630. XIE, D., LEONG, F. T. L., & FENG, S. (2008) Culture-specific personality correlates of anxiety among Chinese and Caucasian college students. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 11, 163-174. YONKERS, K. A., & GURGUIS, G. (1995) Gender differences in the prevalence and expression of anxiety disorders. In M. V. Seeman (Ed.), Gender and psychopathology. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press. Pp. 113-130. Accepted May 15, 2013.
21_PR_Abdel-Khalek_FMS_051513_130017.indd 1004
20/08/13 11:34 AM
Copyright of Psychological Reports is the property of Ammons Scientific, Ltd. and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use.
