Psychological Reports, 1992, 71, 1347-1356.
O Psychological Reports 1992
COMPUTERIZED COGNITIVE TRAINING W I T H LEARNING DISABLED STUDENTS: A PILOT STUDY ' ' 2
Laval University Summary.-The effects of practicing computerized exercises in class by 59 learning disabled students who received an 8-hr. training program, 30 min. per week, were evaluated. Six exercises designed to facilitate basic cognitive skills development were used. Twelve subjects were assigned to a control group without any form of intervention. Covariance analysis (pretest scores used as covariates) showed a significant effect of training on mental arithmetic. These results suggest that practicing a computerized exercise of mental arithmetic can facilitate the automatization of basic arithmetic skills (addition, subtraction, and multiplication). The nature, progress, and evaluation of such types of intervention are discussed.
The literature provides a number of cognitive rehabilitation models (Luria, 1963; Diller, 1976; Reitan & Wolfson, 1985, 1988; Bracy, 1986). All of these involve the systematic use of exercises aimed at remedying perceptual-motor and cognitive functional deficits. According to Kurlychek and Gland (1984), systematic practice constitutes the core of any intervention in cognitive rehabilitation. Since the advent of microcomputers, many training programs have been proposed (Lynch, 1986; Gianutsos & Klitzner, 1981; Bracy, 1983; Pkpin, 1988, 1991). Some studies have shown therapeutic gains following the use of microcomputer interventions with closed head-injured patients (Bracy, 1983; Lynch, 1981, 1983a, 1983b; Sivak, Hill, Henson, Butler, Silber, & Olson, 1984; Sivak, Hill, & Olsen, 1984). Other studies also support the use of computers in cognitive rehabilitation (e.g., Engum, Sbordone, & Story, 1987; Gianutsos & Alwang, 1985). Until recently, most computerized programs in cognitive rehabilitation have been used with head-injured adults. Few studies have evaluated the efficacy of similar intervention programs with learning disabled students suffering from cognitive deficits without neurological signs. This approach seems nevertheless justified with learning disabled students although it seems more appropriate to use the term "cognitive training" rather than "cognitive rehabili tation." Clinical experience emphasizes the necessity of developing training strategies appropriate for the needs of learning disabled students, strategies involving systematic training until a degree of automaticity is reached (Goldman & 'This research was funded by a grant from the Social Science and Humanities Research Council
?€ Canada.
Address enquiries to Dr. M. Pipin, School of Psychology, Laval University, Quebec, Canada
G1K 7P4.
1348
F. TALBOT. ET AL
Pellegrino, 1987; Margalit, Weisel, & Shulman, 1987). The ultimate purpose is to make the material sufficiently well learnt to allow the release of cognitive and attentional resources. Released resources can then be used for other performance aspects involving the execution of more complex operations (Goldman & Pellegrino, 1986). Automaticity appears to be a major component in the acquisition of motor and cognitive skills (Shiffrin & Dumais, 1981). I t is now recognized that a number of children with learning problems show some difficulties relative to the automatization of information-processing skills (Ackerman & Dykman, 1982; LaBerge & Samuels, 1974; Lorsbach, 1982; Spear & Sternberg, 1986; Sternberg, 1984, 1985; Sternberg & Wagner, 1982) and of basic arithmetic combinations (Fleischner, Garnett, & Shepard, 1982; Garnett & Fleischner, 1983). Practice of basic arithmetic operations for example would then serve to reinforce knowledge and appears to be a basic mechanism in the acquisition of expertise for simple addition and subtraction (Pellegrino & Goldman, 1987). Improvements have been reported by Goldman, Mertz, and Pellegrino (1986), Chiang (1986), and Howell, Sidorenko, and Juria (1987) following practice of computerized arithmetic tasks. An empirical research program (Technology Effectiveness with Exceptional Children-Project TEECh) was designed to study the effects of systematic practice with computerized tasks among learning dlsabled children. Results suggest an improvement in the automaticity of some basic skills. Positive effects have been observed for addition, multiplication, and memory of word meaning and spelling (Gerber, 1986; Goldman & Mertz, 1986; Goldman, Mertz, & Pellegrino, 1986; Goldman, Pellegrino, & Mertz, 1985). Drill and practice programs are the most common application of microcomputers in education. In general, results are mixed (Carrier, Post, & Heck, 1985). Bracy (1986) explains these mixed results by the fact that the majority of computerized programs used are aimed at learning specific academic material when it may be better to focus on basic abilities involved in the learning process. Moreover, Greenfield (1984) recalls that, according to Piaget, sensorimotor skills are basic in the development of more complex cognitive functions. Some researchers have studied the effects of cognitive training programs that are based on the practice of videogames or computerized exercises without any specific academic material among learning disabled students. Bracy (1986) showed positive changes following the use of such programs. This type of training encourages the development of perceptual-motor and visuospatial skills such as visual memory, visual exploration, visual scanning, and recognition of forms (Beattie & Owen, 1985; Ferland, 1988; Larose, 1989). While evidence suggests that cognitive rehabilitation is an effective approach for head-injured adults (Ben-Yishay & Diller, 1983; Schleuderer, Short, & Crisler, 1988), efficacy studies are recent and do not yet prove that
COMPUTERIZED TRAINING FOR LEARNING DISABLED
1349
practice of computerized tasks can contribute to the improvement of cognitive functions (Lynch, 1989). This is also the case for any lund of cognitive training with learning disabled students. The purpose of this pilot study is to evaluate the relationship between practice of computerized exercises at school among learning disabled students and the improvement of related cognitive skds. More specifically, this study aims at ascertaining the effect of practicing a computerized mental arithmetic exercise. Although the experimental design used does not d o w a direct test of the effects of this training on automaticity, it is inferred that it should facilitate the development of the automatization process of basic arithmetical operations as some authors suggest that learning disabled children fail or have difficulty in automatizing these operations (e.g., Fleischner, Garnett, & Shepard, 1982; Garnett & Fleischner, 1983). I t is further predicted that practicing computerized tasks aimed at developing some of the spatial abilities involved in reading and writing will produce a functional improvement in visual memory, orientation, and spatial visualization.
Subjects The sample was composed of 7 1 students with various learning problems. The subjects (58 boys and 13 girls) aged between 8 and 13 years (M= 11.2, SD = 1.4) were recruited in a school in the Quebec region. The ratio of boys to girls corresponds to ratios typically mentioned in the literature regarding the incidence of learning problems among boys and girls (Baker, 1982; Willems, Noel, & Evrard, 1979). Sampling was not random. Five classes with reduced effectiveness participated on a voluntary basis (n = 601, and one class (n = 11) was assigned to a control group.
Training Program and Material The REEDUC program (PGpin, 1988) includes several computerized exercises. The exercises were designed to develop basic cognitive functions by progressive training. The program was conceptualized for use without any specific formation. A management system allows individualized practice according to the subjects' performance. Users progress at their own rate. Each subject's performance is recorded at the end of each working session. The simplicity and specificity of the tasks (Larose, 1989) make REEDUC particularly appropriate for subjects showing learning or attentional difficulties. More complex tasks involving simultaneous mastery of several abilities may be less efficient with these subjects. Twelve IBMpc computers with 80188 processors connected to a network
1350
F. TALBOT, ET AL.
were used. Twelve-inch CGA color screens were also used. Colors displayed for most of the exercises are white, cyan, and magenta on a blue background, except for the exercise of spatial visualization which colors are yellow and red on a dark grey background. The subjects sat in front of the computers at a distance ranging from 30 to 50 centimetres.
Instruments Dependent variables consisted of two paper-and-pencil and two computerized tasks. The first paper-and-pencil measure was the Revised Minnesota Paper Form Board Test (Likert & Quasha, 1970). This test assesses the ability to perceive spatial relations and is widely used as a measure of spatial visualization (Kail & Pellegrino, 1985; Pellegrino & Kail, 1982). The task involves the mental reconstitution of a geometrical figure from its parts. Only the first 32 items were selected as the test was to be administered to young learning disabled children. The performance criterion is the number of errors. The second paper-and-pencil task was a mental arithmetic test developed for the experiment. The task consists of simple addition, subtraction, and multiplication problems that are solved mentally. Performance is assessed according to the number of errors. The Spatial Orientation Test (P6pin, 1988) and the Mental Prospection Test (Pipin, 1988) were the two computerized tasks. The first assesses spatial orientation through 15 mazes that are presented in order of increasing difficulty. The number of errors is the performance criterion; each error represents entry into a dead end. The second computerized measure evaluates immediate visual memory. A set of 4 to 12 numbers and/or letters is shown on the screen. After a few seconds, the set disappears. A choice of five responses with numbers and/or letters is presented. The person must identify the number or letter that was in the set previously shown. The 10-min. task comprises 54 sets. These instruments were chosen because they show face validity for the skills involved in training. Moreover, the specific content of the tests with regard to the abilities measured eliminates potential problems that may arise with tasks involving other cognitive processes such as semantic analysis. The computerized tests are justified by advantages over paper-and-pencil instruments, such as more standardized procedures. They also diversify assessment thereby maintaining motivation.
Procedure The test battery was administered at pretest and posttest. The tests were administered in groups. Twenty hours training was suggested at a rate of two sessions per week, each lasting about 30 minutes. The training was nevertheless shorter than planned due to different constraints. I n fact, sub-
COMPUTERIZED TRAINING FOR LEARNING DISABLED
1351
jects received an average of 8-hour training instead of 20 at an average rate of one session per week, each session lasting about 30 minutes. The constraints included the fact that other teaching activities had already been planned for most of the groups which allowed for only one session of training per week. Holidays and special activities at school have also reduced the time available for practice. Moreover, the first sessions proceeded at a slower rate because the students had to farmliarize themselves with the program. Finally, a system of reinforcement consisting of bonus points was introduced to maintain participants' motivation; five minutes per session were needed to award students their bonus points. Six exercises were used: (I) visual memory, (2) perceptual speed, (3) spatial visualization, (4) recognition of forms, ( 5 ) spatial orientation, and (6) mental arithmetic. The mental arithmetic exercise was retained since some studies show that learning disabled students fail or have difficulty in automatizing these operations (e.g., Fleischner, et a / . , 1982; Garnett & Fleischner, 1983). The other exercises were chosen because some researchers suggest that cognitive training programs that are based on computerized exercises encourage the development of perceptual-motor and visuospatial skills such as visual memory, visual exploration, visual scanning, and recognition of forms (Beattie & Owen, 1985; Ferland, 1988; Larose, 1989). Also, visual memory, spatial orientation, and spatial visualization are involved in many academic tasks like reading and writing and are often deficient among learning disabled students. Each exercise was practiced equally except for mental arithmetic and spatial visualization which were practiced for twice as long, those two variables being the prime target of the training. Training sessions were conducted under the supervision of two psychology graduate students and implicated the participation of the teacher of each class given the training. Working sessions took place in groups of 12 subjects.
RESULTS Only results on the Mental Arithmetic and Spatial Visualization tasks are presented since the training was focused more on these abilities. The mean training time for the spatial visualization exercise is 77 minutes (SD = 29) and 121 minutes (SD = 36) for the arithmetic exercise. Comparison of the means at pretest shows that the performance of the control group was slightly better than the experimental group (Table 1). Univariate analyses of covariance were conducted (with scores at pretest used as covariates) due to the observed initial differences in performance between groups. Analysis indicated a significant difference in performance of experimental and control groups on the Mental Arithmetic Test (F,,6, = 5.3, p = .02); see Table 1. Comparison of gains showed an improvement for subjects in the experimental group. A slight decrease was observed for the
1352
F. TALBOT, ET AL.
TABLE 1 MKANS, STANDARD DEVIATIONS, AND
RESULTSOF UNNARIATE COVARIANCE ANALYSIS
-
Measures
Control Group
Experimental Group
n=ll
n = 60
M
Minnesota Paper Form Board Test Pretest 21.2 Posttest 23.5 Mental Arithmetic Pretest 24.3 Posttest 23.3
SD
M
6.2 6.7
19.1 21.5
8.3 7.8
21.5 25.4
F
SD 6.0 5.1
0.1
10.5 10.9
5.3*
control group. Uncontrolled variables (e.g., motivation) might have contributed to the decrease. Subjects in the experimental group also performed slightly better than the control group on the Spatial Visualization Test. However, there was no significant difference, the control group also improved at posttest (F,,6, = 0.1, p = ns); see Table 1. A practice effect may explain the observed gains.
DISCUSSION Results of this pilot study suggest that practicing computerized mental arithmetic exercises may help the automatization of basic arithmetical operations (addition, subtraction, and multiplication) by learning disabled students. However, these results do not allow the conclusion that automatization of basic arithmetical operations did in fact occur as the evaluation of performance was judged only by the numbers of correct answers in a limited time. I n fact, Hasselbring (1985) observed that increased accuracy of responses might occur even if the development of automatic processes did not occur. O n the other hand, Goldman and Pellegrino (1987) indicate that an improvement in the accuracy of responses represents an important criterion for the evaluation of automatic processing. Lesgold (1983) argued that a change in the accuracy of answers is a necessary condition for a change in reaction time leading to the development of automatization. Further, given the nature of the mental arithmetic exercise involving limited reaction time, it is possible to state that practice has opened the way to automatic processes involved in any mental arithmetic task. The absence of a significant difference on the spatial visualization measure might be explained by the short training time. Visual exploration and recognition of forms, for example, constitute simpler abilities that may need to be mastered before the development of more complex skills like spatial visualization. It is then possible, as Larose (1989) suggests, that subjects acquire, in the course of the training, a certain expertise in basic spatial abili-
COMPUTERIZED TRAINING FOR LEARNING DISABLED
1353
ties without showing any improvement in spatial visualization performance. However, the dependent variables in this study d o not enable this possibility to be explored. In a subsequent study it would be interesting to include a measure of these basic skills for a more complete assessment of training effects and to be sure that basic spatial abdities have been mastered before practicing computerized spatial visualization. Twenty hours training, as suggested, would have probably d o w e d greater improvement in the performance of subjects on different measures; however, time limits made this objective infeasible. Implementation in class also brings certain constraints that make assessment more difficult. Greater f a d a r i t y between the experimental subjects and the examiner might also have biased the psychometric quality of the instruments at the second evaluation. External examiners would have eliminated this possibility. It should also be noted that the children who participated already had had experience with different videogames and computerized exercises. Different results might have been observed with students with no experience of these tasks. Furthermore, the identification of specific learning problems and the use of a smaller and more homogeneous sample with regard to the nature of deficits would have allowed a better evaluation of the impact of practicing computerized tasks. Studies of microcomputer-assisted training with learning disabled children have just begun. Substantial results from this study and others support the relevance of practicing computerized exercises that would be especially designed for developing the automatization of s k d s such as simple arithmetic. The automatization of simple operations may facilitate the resolution of more complex problems. However, according to Hofrneister (1983) and Hasselbring, Goin, and Bransford (1988), the implementation of cognitive training programs must meet some conditions to be effective. Work by several researchers represents an effort towards this goal (Goldman & Pellegrino, 1986; Hasselbring, et al., 1988; Howell & Graica, 1985; Rieth, 1985; Margalit, et al., 1987). Hasselbring, et al. (1988) have observed that memorization training followed by practicing the memorized material is likely to improve performance. Further studies should be designed to identify systematically the optimal conditions for doing computerized exercises with learning disabled children. REFERENCES DYKMAN,T. A. (1982) Automatic and effortful information-processing deficits in children with learning and attention disorders. Topics in Learning and Learning Dlrnb~l~hes, 2, 12-22. BAKER,A. (1982) Developmental abnormalities. Clinical Neurology, 55(4),8-34. B E A ~ R, D , & OWEN,N . (1985) Preliminary study of cognitive retraining via computer-based activities. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 61, 1130. ACKERMAN, P. T.,
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BEN-YISHAY, Y., & DULER,L. (1983) Cognitive remediation. In M. Rosenthal, E. R. Griffith, M. R. Bond, & J. D. Miller (Eds.), Rehabilitation of the head injured adult. Philadelphia, PA: F. A. Davis. Pp. 367-380. BRACY,0. L. (1983) Computer based cognitive rehabilitation. Cognitive Rehabilitation, 1, 7-8, 18. BRACY,0. L. (1986) Cognicive rehabilitation: a process approach. Cognitive Rehabilitation, 4(2), 10-17. CARRIER,C., POST, T. R., & HECK,W. (1985) Using microcomputers with fourth-grade students to reinforce arithmetic skills jo~rrnalof Research in Mathematics Education, 16(1), 45-51. CHIANG, B. (1986) Initial learning and transfer effects of microcomputer drills on LD student multiplication skills. Learning Disability Quarterly, 9, 118-123. DILLER,L. (1976) A model for cognitive retraining in rehabilitation. The Clinical Psychologist, 26, 13-15. ENGUM,E., SBORDONE, R., & STORY,T. (1987) Hard talk about software. Cognitive Rehabilitation, 5(4), 8-16. FERLAND,C. (1988) Effets de la pratique d'un jeu informatisti sur le diveloppement des habiletis visuo-spatiales chez des enfants presentant une dysfonction ciribrale mineure. Unpublished master's thesis, UniversitC Laval, Qu6bec. FLEISCHNER, J. E., GARNETT,K., & SIIEPARD, M. J. (1982) Proficiency in arithmetic basic facts computation of learning disabled and non-d~sabledchildren. Focus on Learning Problems in Mathematics, 4 , 47-56. GARNETT,K., & FLEISCHNER, J. E. (1983) Automatization and basic fact performance of normal and learning disabled children. Learning Disability Quarkrly, 6 , 223-230. GERBER,M. M. (1986) Effects of errorless and repeated practice using microcomputer-administered spelling dictation for learning handicapped students. Technical Report No. 31, Univer. of California, Project TEECh, Santa Barbara, CA. GIANUTSOS, R., & ALWANG, G . (1985) Personal computing and the transformation of an injured brain into an active mind. Pa er presented at che Conference on Microcomputer Rehabilitation of Brain Damaged d d t s , New York, NY. GIANUTSOS, R., & C. (1981) Computer programs for cognitive rehabilitation. Bayport, NY: Life Sclences Assoc. GOLDMAN, S. R., & ~ ~ E R T D. z , L. (1986) Developing automaticity in retrieving word meaning: microcom uter practice by learning handicapped students. Technical Report No. 24, Univer. oP~alifornia,Project TEECh, Santa Barbara, CA. GOLDMAN, S. R., M F ~ T ZD., L., & PELLEGRINO, J. W. (1986) Microcomputer delivery of addition drill and practice to math-disabled learners: Interim Report 11. Technical Report No. 26, Univer. of California, Project TEECh, Santa Barbara, CA. GOLDMAN, S. R., & PELLEGRIND, J. (1986) Microcomputer: effective drill and practice. Academic Therapy, 22, 133-140. GOLDMAN, S. R., & PELLEGRINO, J. W. (1987) Information processing and educational microcomputer technology: where do we go from here? Journal of Learning Disabilities, 20, 144-154. GOLDMAN, S. R., PELLEGRMO, J. W., & MERTZ,D. L. (1985) Microcomputer delivery of addition drill and practice to math-disabled learners: Interim Report I. Technical Report No. 25, Univer. of California, Project TEECh, Santa Barbara, CA. GREENFIELD, P. M. (1984) Mind and media: the effect of television, video games and computers. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univer. Press. HASSELBRING, T. (1985) A chronometric analysis of che effects of computer-based drill and practice in addition and subtraction. Paper presented at the First Invitational Research Symposium on Special Education Technology, Washington, DC. HASSELBRING, T., GOIN, L. I., & BRANSFORD, J. D. (1988) Developing math automaticity in learning handica ped children: the role of computerized drill and practice. Focus on Exceptional c h i l i e n , 20(6), 1-67. HOFMEISTER, A. (1983) Microcomputer applications in the classroom. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston. How=, R., SLDORENKO, E., & J u m , J. (1987) The effects of computer use on the acquisition of multiplication facts by a student with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilzties, 20, 336-341.
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HOWELL,R. D., & GRAICA,J. (1985) The effects of computer use on the generalization of learning with a learning disabled student. Paper presented at the First Invitational Research Symposium on Special Education Technology, Washington, DC. KNL, R., & PEUEGRINO,J. W. (1985) Human intelligence, perspectives and prospects. New York: Freeman. KURLYCHEK, R. T., & GLAND,A. E. (1984) The use of microcomputers in the cognitive rehabilitation of brain iniured persons. In M D. Schwartz (Ed.), Using computers in clinical practice. New York: Hayworth. Pp. 245.256. LABERGE, D., & SAMUELS,S. J. (1974) Toward a theory of automatic information processing in reading. Cognitive Psychology, 6, 293-323. LAROSE,S. (1989) Application de la micro-informatique en riCducation co nitive: efficacitC d'un programme d'entrainement des habiletis spatiales. ~ n ~ u b l i s h emaster's f thesis, UniversitC Laval, Qutbec. LESGOLD,A. M. (1983) A rationale for computer-based reading instruction. Ln A. C. Wilkenson (Ed.), Classroom computers and cognitive science. New York: Academic Press. Pp. 167-181. LIKERT,R., & QUASHA, W. H . (1970) Revised Minnesota Paper Form Board Test. New York: Psychological Corp. LORSBACH, T. C. (1982) Individual differences in semantic encoding processes. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 15, 476-480. LURIA,A. R. (1963) Restoration of brain function after brain injury. New York: Macmillan. LYNCH,W. (1986) An update on software in cognitive rehabilitation. Cognitive Rehabilitation, 4(3), 14-18. LYNCH,W. (1989) Ethics in computer-assisted cognitive retraining. Journal of Head Trauma and Rehabilitation, 4(1), 91-93. LYNCH,W. J. (1981) TV games as therapeutic interventions. In W. J. Lynch, Rehabilitation of post-haumatic brain-damaged patients. Symposium of American Psychological Association, Los Angeles, CA. Pp. 2-15. LYNCH, W. J. (1983a) Cognitive retraining using microcomputers, games and commercially available software. Cognitive Rehabilitation, 1, 19-22. LYNCH,W. J. (1983b) Video games in remediation. In S. Baughman & P. Clagett (Eds.), Proceedings of a symposium on video games and human developmenf. Cambridge, M A : Monroe C. Gucman Library. Pp. 25-28. MARGALIT, M., WEISEL,A., & SHULMAN, S. (1987) The facilitation of information processing in learning disabled children using computer games. Educational Psychology, 7(1), 47-54. MCGEE,M. G. (1979) Human spatial abilities: psychometric studies and environmental, generic, hormonal and neurological influences. Psychological Bulletin, 86, 889-918. PELLEGRINO, J. W., & GOLDMAN, S. R. (1987) Information processing and elementary mathematics. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 20, 23-32. PELLEGRINO, J. W., & KAIL, R., JR. (1982) Process analyses of spatial aptitude. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), Advances in the psycho log^ of human intelligence. Vol. 1. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Pp. 311-365. Wpm, M. (1988) REEDUC fiercices informatisis), Version 1.0. QuCbec: Microlude, Inc. Wpm, M. (1991) REEDUC (Exercices informatisis), Version 2.0. Qutbec: Microlude, Inc. REITAN,R. M., & WOLFSON,D. (1985) The Halstead-Reitan Neuropsychological Test Battery: theory and clinical interpretation. Tucson, AZ: Neuropsychology Press. REITAN,R. M., & WOLFSON, D. (1988) TIaumatic brain injury. Vol. 11. Recovery and rehabilitation. Tucson, AZ: Neuropsychology Press. RIETH, H. (1985) An analysis of the instructional and contextual variables that influence the efficacy of computer-based instruction for mildly handicapped secondary school students. Paper presented at the First Invitational Research Symposium on Special Education Technology, Washington, DC. SCHLEUDERER, C., SHORT,S., & CRISLER,J. (1988) Outcome of cognitive rehabilitation of patients with head injuries. Journal ofRehabilitation, 54, 31-34. SHIFFRIN,R. M., & DUMAIS,S. T. (1981) The development of automatism. In J. Anderson (Ed.), Cognifive skills and their acquisition. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Pp. 111-140. STYAK, M., HILL, C. S., HENSON,D. L., BUTLER,B. P., SUER, S., M., & OLSON,l? L. (1984)
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Impmved driving erformance following perceptual training in persons with brain damage. Archives of ~&sicalMedicine and Rehabilitation, 65, 163-167. SNAK, M., HILL,C. S., & OLSON, P. L. (1984) Computerized video tasks as training techniques for drivingrelated perceptual deficits of persons with brain damage: a pilot evaluation. International lournal of Rehabilitation and Research, 7, 389-398. SPEAR,L. C., & STERNBERG, K. J. (1986) A n inf'orrnation-processing framework for understandmg learning h a b h t i e s . In S. Ceci (Ed.), Handbook of cognitive, social, and neuropsychological aspects of learning ditabilities. Vol. 2. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaurn. Pp. 2-30. STERNBERG, R. J. (1984) Toward a triarchc theory o l human intelligence. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 7, 269-315. STERNBERG, R J (1985) Beyond IQ: a friarchic theory of human intelligence. New York: Cambr~dgeUniver. Press. STERNBERG, R J., & WAGNER,R. K. (1982) Automatization failure in !earning disabilities. Toprcs zn Learning and Learning Disabilities, 18, 205-212. WULEMS,G . , NOEL,A., & EVRARD,P. (1979) La troubles de I'apprentissage scolnire: mamen neuropidiahique des fonctions de I'apprentissage de I'enfant d'ige priscolnire. Paris: Doin.
Accepted November 9, 1992.
O Psychological Reports 1992
COMPUTERIZED COGNITIVE TRAINING W I T H LEARNING DISABLED STUDENTS: A PILOT STUDY ' ' 2
Laval University Summary.-The effects of practicing computerized exercises in class by 59 learning disabled students who received an 8-hr. training program, 30 min. per week, were evaluated. Six exercises designed to facilitate basic cognitive skills development were used. Twelve subjects were assigned to a control group without any form of intervention. Covariance analysis (pretest scores used as covariates) showed a significant effect of training on mental arithmetic. These results suggest that practicing a computerized exercise of mental arithmetic can facilitate the automatization of basic arithmetic skills (addition, subtraction, and multiplication). The nature, progress, and evaluation of such types of intervention are discussed.
The literature provides a number of cognitive rehabilitation models (Luria, 1963; Diller, 1976; Reitan & Wolfson, 1985, 1988; Bracy, 1986). All of these involve the systematic use of exercises aimed at remedying perceptual-motor and cognitive functional deficits. According to Kurlychek and Gland (1984), systematic practice constitutes the core of any intervention in cognitive rehabilitation. Since the advent of microcomputers, many training programs have been proposed (Lynch, 1986; Gianutsos & Klitzner, 1981; Bracy, 1983; Pkpin, 1988, 1991). Some studies have shown therapeutic gains following the use of microcomputer interventions with closed head-injured patients (Bracy, 1983; Lynch, 1981, 1983a, 1983b; Sivak, Hill, Henson, Butler, Silber, & Olson, 1984; Sivak, Hill, & Olsen, 1984). Other studies also support the use of computers in cognitive rehabilitation (e.g., Engum, Sbordone, & Story, 1987; Gianutsos & Alwang, 1985). Until recently, most computerized programs in cognitive rehabilitation have been used with head-injured adults. Few studies have evaluated the efficacy of similar intervention programs with learning disabled students suffering from cognitive deficits without neurological signs. This approach seems nevertheless justified with learning disabled students although it seems more appropriate to use the term "cognitive training" rather than "cognitive rehabili tation." Clinical experience emphasizes the necessity of developing training strategies appropriate for the needs of learning disabled students, strategies involving systematic training until a degree of automaticity is reached (Goldman & 'This research was funded by a grant from the Social Science and Humanities Research Council
?€ Canada.
Address enquiries to Dr. M. Pipin, School of Psychology, Laval University, Quebec, Canada
G1K 7P4.
1348
F. TALBOT. ET AL
Pellegrino, 1987; Margalit, Weisel, & Shulman, 1987). The ultimate purpose is to make the material sufficiently well learnt to allow the release of cognitive and attentional resources. Released resources can then be used for other performance aspects involving the execution of more complex operations (Goldman & Pellegrino, 1986). Automaticity appears to be a major component in the acquisition of motor and cognitive skills (Shiffrin & Dumais, 1981). I t is now recognized that a number of children with learning problems show some difficulties relative to the automatization of information-processing skills (Ackerman & Dykman, 1982; LaBerge & Samuels, 1974; Lorsbach, 1982; Spear & Sternberg, 1986; Sternberg, 1984, 1985; Sternberg & Wagner, 1982) and of basic arithmetic combinations (Fleischner, Garnett, & Shepard, 1982; Garnett & Fleischner, 1983). Practice of basic arithmetic operations for example would then serve to reinforce knowledge and appears to be a basic mechanism in the acquisition of expertise for simple addition and subtraction (Pellegrino & Goldman, 1987). Improvements have been reported by Goldman, Mertz, and Pellegrino (1986), Chiang (1986), and Howell, Sidorenko, and Juria (1987) following practice of computerized arithmetic tasks. An empirical research program (Technology Effectiveness with Exceptional Children-Project TEECh) was designed to study the effects of systematic practice with computerized tasks among learning dlsabled children. Results suggest an improvement in the automaticity of some basic skills. Positive effects have been observed for addition, multiplication, and memory of word meaning and spelling (Gerber, 1986; Goldman & Mertz, 1986; Goldman, Mertz, & Pellegrino, 1986; Goldman, Pellegrino, & Mertz, 1985). Drill and practice programs are the most common application of microcomputers in education. In general, results are mixed (Carrier, Post, & Heck, 1985). Bracy (1986) explains these mixed results by the fact that the majority of computerized programs used are aimed at learning specific academic material when it may be better to focus on basic abilities involved in the learning process. Moreover, Greenfield (1984) recalls that, according to Piaget, sensorimotor skills are basic in the development of more complex cognitive functions. Some researchers have studied the effects of cognitive training programs that are based on the practice of videogames or computerized exercises without any specific academic material among learning disabled students. Bracy (1986) showed positive changes following the use of such programs. This type of training encourages the development of perceptual-motor and visuospatial skills such as visual memory, visual exploration, visual scanning, and recognition of forms (Beattie & Owen, 1985; Ferland, 1988; Larose, 1989). While evidence suggests that cognitive rehabilitation is an effective approach for head-injured adults (Ben-Yishay & Diller, 1983; Schleuderer, Short, & Crisler, 1988), efficacy studies are recent and do not yet prove that
COMPUTERIZED TRAINING FOR LEARNING DISABLED
1349
practice of computerized tasks can contribute to the improvement of cognitive functions (Lynch, 1989). This is also the case for any lund of cognitive training with learning disabled students. The purpose of this pilot study is to evaluate the relationship between practice of computerized exercises at school among learning disabled students and the improvement of related cognitive skds. More specifically, this study aims at ascertaining the effect of practicing a computerized mental arithmetic exercise. Although the experimental design used does not d o w a direct test of the effects of this training on automaticity, it is inferred that it should facilitate the development of the automatization process of basic arithmetical operations as some authors suggest that learning disabled children fail or have difficulty in automatizing these operations (e.g., Fleischner, Garnett, & Shepard, 1982; Garnett & Fleischner, 1983). I t is further predicted that practicing computerized tasks aimed at developing some of the spatial abilities involved in reading and writing will produce a functional improvement in visual memory, orientation, and spatial visualization.
Subjects The sample was composed of 7 1 students with various learning problems. The subjects (58 boys and 13 girls) aged between 8 and 13 years (M= 11.2, SD = 1.4) were recruited in a school in the Quebec region. The ratio of boys to girls corresponds to ratios typically mentioned in the literature regarding the incidence of learning problems among boys and girls (Baker, 1982; Willems, Noel, & Evrard, 1979). Sampling was not random. Five classes with reduced effectiveness participated on a voluntary basis (n = 601, and one class (n = 11) was assigned to a control group.
Training Program and Material The REEDUC program (PGpin, 1988) includes several computerized exercises. The exercises were designed to develop basic cognitive functions by progressive training. The program was conceptualized for use without any specific formation. A management system allows individualized practice according to the subjects' performance. Users progress at their own rate. Each subject's performance is recorded at the end of each working session. The simplicity and specificity of the tasks (Larose, 1989) make REEDUC particularly appropriate for subjects showing learning or attentional difficulties. More complex tasks involving simultaneous mastery of several abilities may be less efficient with these subjects. Twelve IBMpc computers with 80188 processors connected to a network
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were used. Twelve-inch CGA color screens were also used. Colors displayed for most of the exercises are white, cyan, and magenta on a blue background, except for the exercise of spatial visualization which colors are yellow and red on a dark grey background. The subjects sat in front of the computers at a distance ranging from 30 to 50 centimetres.
Instruments Dependent variables consisted of two paper-and-pencil and two computerized tasks. The first paper-and-pencil measure was the Revised Minnesota Paper Form Board Test (Likert & Quasha, 1970). This test assesses the ability to perceive spatial relations and is widely used as a measure of spatial visualization (Kail & Pellegrino, 1985; Pellegrino & Kail, 1982). The task involves the mental reconstitution of a geometrical figure from its parts. Only the first 32 items were selected as the test was to be administered to young learning disabled children. The performance criterion is the number of errors. The second paper-and-pencil task was a mental arithmetic test developed for the experiment. The task consists of simple addition, subtraction, and multiplication problems that are solved mentally. Performance is assessed according to the number of errors. The Spatial Orientation Test (P6pin, 1988) and the Mental Prospection Test (Pipin, 1988) were the two computerized tasks. The first assesses spatial orientation through 15 mazes that are presented in order of increasing difficulty. The number of errors is the performance criterion; each error represents entry into a dead end. The second computerized measure evaluates immediate visual memory. A set of 4 to 12 numbers and/or letters is shown on the screen. After a few seconds, the set disappears. A choice of five responses with numbers and/or letters is presented. The person must identify the number or letter that was in the set previously shown. The 10-min. task comprises 54 sets. These instruments were chosen because they show face validity for the skills involved in training. Moreover, the specific content of the tests with regard to the abilities measured eliminates potential problems that may arise with tasks involving other cognitive processes such as semantic analysis. The computerized tests are justified by advantages over paper-and-pencil instruments, such as more standardized procedures. They also diversify assessment thereby maintaining motivation.
Procedure The test battery was administered at pretest and posttest. The tests were administered in groups. Twenty hours training was suggested at a rate of two sessions per week, each lasting about 30 minutes. The training was nevertheless shorter than planned due to different constraints. I n fact, sub-
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1351
jects received an average of 8-hour training instead of 20 at an average rate of one session per week, each session lasting about 30 minutes. The constraints included the fact that other teaching activities had already been planned for most of the groups which allowed for only one session of training per week. Holidays and special activities at school have also reduced the time available for practice. Moreover, the first sessions proceeded at a slower rate because the students had to farmliarize themselves with the program. Finally, a system of reinforcement consisting of bonus points was introduced to maintain participants' motivation; five minutes per session were needed to award students their bonus points. Six exercises were used: (I) visual memory, (2) perceptual speed, (3) spatial visualization, (4) recognition of forms, ( 5 ) spatial orientation, and (6) mental arithmetic. The mental arithmetic exercise was retained since some studies show that learning disabled students fail or have difficulty in automatizing these operations (e.g., Fleischner, et a / . , 1982; Garnett & Fleischner, 1983). The other exercises were chosen because some researchers suggest that cognitive training programs that are based on computerized exercises encourage the development of perceptual-motor and visuospatial skills such as visual memory, visual exploration, visual scanning, and recognition of forms (Beattie & Owen, 1985; Ferland, 1988; Larose, 1989). Also, visual memory, spatial orientation, and spatial visualization are involved in many academic tasks like reading and writing and are often deficient among learning disabled students. Each exercise was practiced equally except for mental arithmetic and spatial visualization which were practiced for twice as long, those two variables being the prime target of the training. Training sessions were conducted under the supervision of two psychology graduate students and implicated the participation of the teacher of each class given the training. Working sessions took place in groups of 12 subjects.
RESULTS Only results on the Mental Arithmetic and Spatial Visualization tasks are presented since the training was focused more on these abilities. The mean training time for the spatial visualization exercise is 77 minutes (SD = 29) and 121 minutes (SD = 36) for the arithmetic exercise. Comparison of the means at pretest shows that the performance of the control group was slightly better than the experimental group (Table 1). Univariate analyses of covariance were conducted (with scores at pretest used as covariates) due to the observed initial differences in performance between groups. Analysis indicated a significant difference in performance of experimental and control groups on the Mental Arithmetic Test (F,,6, = 5.3, p = .02); see Table 1. Comparison of gains showed an improvement for subjects in the experimental group. A slight decrease was observed for the
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TABLE 1 MKANS, STANDARD DEVIATIONS, AND
RESULTSOF UNNARIATE COVARIANCE ANALYSIS
-
Measures
Control Group
Experimental Group
n=ll
n = 60
M
Minnesota Paper Form Board Test Pretest 21.2 Posttest 23.5 Mental Arithmetic Pretest 24.3 Posttest 23.3
SD
M
6.2 6.7
19.1 21.5
8.3 7.8
21.5 25.4
F
SD 6.0 5.1
0.1
10.5 10.9
5.3*
control group. Uncontrolled variables (e.g., motivation) might have contributed to the decrease. Subjects in the experimental group also performed slightly better than the control group on the Spatial Visualization Test. However, there was no significant difference, the control group also improved at posttest (F,,6, = 0.1, p = ns); see Table 1. A practice effect may explain the observed gains.
DISCUSSION Results of this pilot study suggest that practicing computerized mental arithmetic exercises may help the automatization of basic arithmetical operations (addition, subtraction, and multiplication) by learning disabled students. However, these results do not allow the conclusion that automatization of basic arithmetical operations did in fact occur as the evaluation of performance was judged only by the numbers of correct answers in a limited time. I n fact, Hasselbring (1985) observed that increased accuracy of responses might occur even if the development of automatic processes did not occur. O n the other hand, Goldman and Pellegrino (1987) indicate that an improvement in the accuracy of responses represents an important criterion for the evaluation of automatic processing. Lesgold (1983) argued that a change in the accuracy of answers is a necessary condition for a change in reaction time leading to the development of automatization. Further, given the nature of the mental arithmetic exercise involving limited reaction time, it is possible to state that practice has opened the way to automatic processes involved in any mental arithmetic task. The absence of a significant difference on the spatial visualization measure might be explained by the short training time. Visual exploration and recognition of forms, for example, constitute simpler abilities that may need to be mastered before the development of more complex skills like spatial visualization. It is then possible, as Larose (1989) suggests, that subjects acquire, in the course of the training, a certain expertise in basic spatial abili-
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1353
ties without showing any improvement in spatial visualization performance. However, the dependent variables in this study d o not enable this possibility to be explored. In a subsequent study it would be interesting to include a measure of these basic skills for a more complete assessment of training effects and to be sure that basic spatial abdities have been mastered before practicing computerized spatial visualization. Twenty hours training, as suggested, would have probably d o w e d greater improvement in the performance of subjects on different measures; however, time limits made this objective infeasible. Implementation in class also brings certain constraints that make assessment more difficult. Greater f a d a r i t y between the experimental subjects and the examiner might also have biased the psychometric quality of the instruments at the second evaluation. External examiners would have eliminated this possibility. It should also be noted that the children who participated already had had experience with different videogames and computerized exercises. Different results might have been observed with students with no experience of these tasks. Furthermore, the identification of specific learning problems and the use of a smaller and more homogeneous sample with regard to the nature of deficits would have allowed a better evaluation of the impact of practicing computerized tasks. Studies of microcomputer-assisted training with learning disabled children have just begun. Substantial results from this study and others support the relevance of practicing computerized exercises that would be especially designed for developing the automatization of s k d s such as simple arithmetic. The automatization of simple operations may facilitate the resolution of more complex problems. However, according to Hofrneister (1983) and Hasselbring, Goin, and Bransford (1988), the implementation of cognitive training programs must meet some conditions to be effective. Work by several researchers represents an effort towards this goal (Goldman & Pellegrino, 1986; Hasselbring, et al., 1988; Howell & Graica, 1985; Rieth, 1985; Margalit, et al., 1987). Hasselbring, et al. (1988) have observed that memorization training followed by practicing the memorized material is likely to improve performance. Further studies should be designed to identify systematically the optimal conditions for doing computerized exercises with learning disabled children. REFERENCES DYKMAN,T. A. (1982) Automatic and effortful information-processing deficits in children with learning and attention disorders. Topics in Learning and Learning Dlrnb~l~hes, 2, 12-22. BAKER,A. (1982) Developmental abnormalities. Clinical Neurology, 55(4),8-34. B E A ~ R, D , & OWEN,N . (1985) Preliminary study of cognitive retraining via computer-based activities. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 61, 1130. ACKERMAN, P. T.,
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Accepted November 9, 1992.
