Competence of Trauma Social Workers: The Relationship Between Field of Practice and Secondary Traumatization, Personal and Environmental Variables.

588536 research-article2015

JIVXXX10.1177/0886260515588536Journal of Interpersonal ViolenceBen-Porat

Article Journal of Interpersonal Violence 1–19 © The Author(s) 2015 Reprints and permissions: sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav DOI: 10.1177/0886260515588536 jiv.sagepub.com

Competence of Trauma Social Workers: The Relationship Between Field of Practice and Secondary Traumatization, Personal and Environmental Variables Anat Ben-Porat, PhD1

Abstract In recent years, there has been growing interest in examining role competence and the factors that can contribute to a sense of role competence among social workers. In the present study, we used the occupational competence model (OCM) as a basis for examining the contribution of the personal dimension (mastery, self-esteem, and secondary traumatization),environmental dimension (support systems),-and occupational dimension (exposure to the field of family violence) to the social worker’s subjective sense of role competence. Participants in the study were 214 social workers employed at centers for prevention of family violence, at shelters for victims of violence against women, and at social service bureaus. The findings indicate that in the occupational dimension, the contribution of exposure to work in the field of family violence contributed significantly to two components of the participants’ subjective sense of role competence: general sense of role competence and task knowledge/problem solving. In the personal dimension, the contribution of secondary traumatization and mastery to a sense of role competence was significant. In the environmental dimension (i.e., support

1Bar

Ilan University, Ramat-Gan, Israel

Corresponding Author: Anat Ben-Porat, Lecturer, School of Social Work, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan 52900, Israel. Email: [email protected]

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systems), the specific contribution of managerial support to the participants’ sense of role competence was significant. In light of these findings, practical recommendations for developing a sense of role competence among social workers are provided. Keywords role competence, family violence, secondary traumatization, mastery, selfesteem, social support, social workers

In recent years, there have been major developments in social work with regard to competency-based conceptualizations, education, training, and assessments (Bogo, 2010; Greene & Kroft, 2011; Guo et al., 2014). The need to establish goals for training and objectives for intervention has led to attempts to define what role competence is and how it is achieved. In addition, growing expectations for responsibility and economic efficiency in public services have broadened research interest in this topic (Evans, Koch, Brady, Meszaros, & Sadler, 2013). Role competence is the ability to function appropriately in a job or a task. This includes the knowledge and skills that social workers have, as well as the ability to influence their work environment. In addition, role competence includes a sense of being able to handle the job. This ability is primarily perceived as an outcome of the worker’s personal characteristics and his interactions with his environment (Roe, 2002). Several studies have been conducted in an attempt to shed light on the factors that contribute to the social worker’s sense of role competence. Most of the existing research has focused on the relationship between this factor and personal, environmental, and organizational variables such as supervision, personal commitment, and organizational climate (Cottrell, 2002; Mandell, Stalker, de Zeeuw, Frensch, & Harvey, 2013; Moore, 2000). However, a review of the literature indicates that there is a lack of knowledge about how the social worker’s field of practice and exposure to various populations and problems can contribute to a subjective sense of role competence. Hence, it is important to conduct further research on this topic. Various theorists have recognized the contribution of interrelationships between the individual, a person’s environment, and a person’s occupation to a sense of role competence (Bogo, 2010; Greene & Kroft, 2011). Of the theoretical models that have been developed, the “occupational


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competence model” (OCM) is particularly noteworthy (Polatajko, 1992; Shaw & Polatajko, 2002). This model has organized various factors relating to competence at work into three main dimensions: (a) the personal dimension, that is, the cognitive abilities of workers and their emotional and physical state; (b) the environmental dimension, that is, the social, cultural, and physical environment of workers; and (c) the occupational dimension, that is, the demands required to perform tasks in the job, including job stressors. The OCM was chosen as the theoretical framework for the present study, because it is based on a holistic approach that reflects the complexity of the factors that contribute to a sense of role competence. Other researchers have used this model and recognized the importance of the perspectives that it offers (Cacciacarro & Bonnie, 2006; Jansson & Björklund, 2007). In this study, the personal dimension included self-esteem and mastery, and the environmental dimension included specific support networks in the social worker’s life. The unique contribution of this study lies in its emphasis on the occupational dimension of working in the field of family violence, which is characterized by unique stressors and role demands. Hence, an attempt was made to address the following question: How does exposure to the field of family violence contribute to the social worker’s sense of role competence? In addition, given that family violence therapy is recognized as trauma therapy, the study examined the specific contribution of secondary traumatization among social workers in this field, and the interactions between secondary traumatization and the research variables in contributing to a sense of role competence. The term secondary traumatization reflects the emotional state of workers (the personal dimension of the OCM). However, despite the considerable attention that has been devoted to that term, its contribution to the social worker’s sense of role competence has yet to be examined.

The Occupational Dimension: Exposure to Family Violence Exposure to family violence poses specific challenges to social workers who are exposed every day to perpetrators and victims of family violence as well as to children in violent families. These workers bear responsibility for the safety of family violence victims. Their work includes risk assessment, protection, treatment, and mediation with other entities in the community. In addition, they often need to deal with multiple tasks and conflicts. They are not only required to make fateful decisions in emergency


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situations but also face a lack of resources in many cases (Slattery & Goodman, 2009). Moreover, social workers in this field are exposed as earwitnesses to traumatic events in marital relationships, and beyond this they can be victims of violence by the aggressor themselves. Hence, they are forced to confront basic beliefs regarding human relationships, particularly spousal and family relationships. All of this can blur the boundary between personal and professional matters, and undermine the social worker’s sense of role competence (Murray & Graves, 2008). In this study, exposure was defined on the basis of the number of hours per week that the worker interacts with victims or perpetrators of family violence. This definition can provide an indication of the immediate implications of the interaction for the social worker. A review of existing research indicates that no studies have examined the relationship between levels of exposure to trauma victims, including victims of family violence and the social worker’s sense of role competence. However, numerous studies have examined the relationship between levels of exposure and various concepts that reflect the negative implications of therapeutic work for therapists (Boscarino, Figley, & Adams, 2004; Killian, 2008).Of the concepts that have been examined, the emphasis on the relationship between levels of exposure and secondary traumatization is particularly noteworthy.

The Personal Dimension: Secondary Traumatization, Mastery, and Self-Esteem Secondary traumatization is a term that relates to a process in which the therapist is “infected” by a victim of trauma. This term describes a wide range of symptoms that the therapist experiences, which are similar to posttraumatic stress disorder (Figley, 1995). Because these symptoms reflect the mood and emotional state of trauma workers, it is important to gain further insights into this phenomenon by identifying its contribution to the sense of role competence. The need to adopt this approach is highlighted by the lack of existing research on the specific contribution of secondary traumatization to a sense of role competence among social workers who deal with family violence. To date, only one study has been conducted among mental health social workers, and the findings have revealed a negative association between the social worker’s sense of competence and the experience of distress (Acker & Lawrence, 2009). Mastery reflects the extent to which individuals feel that they can control changes or events in their lives (Pearlin & Schooler,1978). In the professional


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literature on trauma victims, the perception that one has control over one’s life and environment, and the ability to manifest this perception in one’s behavior are considered to be an important personal factor that contributes to the therapist’s sense of role competence (Regehr, Hemsworth, Leslie, Howe, & Chau, 2004). Self-esteem is another important personal factor that is believed to contribute to a sense of role competence among therapists working with these populations. This resource is especially important in light of questions that therapists raise regarding their ability to deal with trauma (Bober & Regehr, 2006). To date, only a few studies have revealed a negative correlation between the sense of mastery or sense of control and the sense of competence among social workers in Israel (Amrani-Cohen, 1999; Jayaratne, Vinokur-Kaplan, & Chess, 1995). However, there are several studies that point to a relationship between mastery and a general sense of competence in roles such as parenthood, sports, and studies (Curry, Da-Fonseca, Rufo, & Sarrazin, 2002; Obach, 2003). Regarding self-esteem, studies conducted among populations such as directors in the public service and social workers have revealed a significant positive association between this variable and a sense of role competence (Guterman & Bargal, 1996; Zunz, 1998). However, no studies have examined the relationship between these variables among social workers working with family violence victims.

The Environmental Dimension: Support Systems The professional literature on the treatment of trauma victims deals extensively with the support networks of therapists, which play an important role in the development of a sense of role competence (Boscarino et al., 2004). In the literature, this support is divided into three spheres, which derive from significant others in the lives of therapists: support from family members and friends, support from work colleagues, and managerial support. Whereas the first type of support satisfies the therapist’s psychological needs, the other two types of support also allow for sharing of tasks, knowledge, experiences, dilemmas, and feelings related to the work, as well as for developing the therapist’s skills through the provision of feedback (Pines & Aronson, 1988). In particular, managerial support enables the therapist to identify resources that can be helpful in coping with specific problems (Bates, Holton, & Seyler, 1996; Bober & Regehr, 2006). There is a serious lack of research on the relationship between social support and a sense of role competence among social workers, especially among family violence workers. More specifically, the contribution of each type of


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social support mentioned above to a sense of role competence has not been examined in the context of specific therapeutic fields. Regarding other populations of therapists, Stoneman and Crapps (1988) found a significant positive association between social support and a sense of role competence among therapists working with persons with mental retardation. Similarly, Lysaght, Altschuld, Grant, and Henderson (2001) found a positive correlation between support from colleagues and a sense of role competence. However, the relationship between managerial support and a sense of role competence has not been examined. In addition, the theoretical emphasis on the negative implications of secondary traumatization for the functioning of therapists raises questions regarding the interaction between this factor and the other research variables in the contribution to a sense of role competence. Thus, research on this topic can enhance knowledge about the factors that promote a sense of role competence among social workers in the field of family violence despite the negative implications of their work. Toward that end, the following questions were examined: What are the relative and specific contributions of secondary traumatization, mastery and self-esteem, and support systems to the social worker’s sense of role competence? and how does exposure to the field of family violence contribute to the social worker’s sense of role competence? In addition, the study aimed to examine how the interactions between all of the research variables and secondary traumatization contribute to the social worker’s sense of role competence.

Method The sample consisted of 214 social workers employed at centers for prevention of family violence, at shelters for victims of violence against women, and at social service bureaus in Israel in 2008. Of the workers, 31 were Arabs and 183 were Israeli-born Jews. The age range of the social workers was 24 to 65 years (M = 39.11, SD = 9.84), 72% were married, and the rest were unmarried, 43% of the participants had a bachelor’s degree, and the rest had a master’s degree or higher; the experience in the field of social work ranged from 1 to 40 years (M = 10.89, SD = 7.98). Regarding exposure to family violence, this variable was measured on the basis of hours of interaction per week with the victims of violence or with the offenders, as mentioned. The social workers reported that they had been directly exposed to the treatment in the field of family violence for 0 to 41 hr per week (M = 15.55, SD = 12.48). The distribution of participants by personal and professional characteristics is presented in Table 1.


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Table 1. Distribution of Participants by Personal and Professional Characteristics. Characteristics Gender Marital status Children Degree

Values

n

%

Men Women Unmarried Married No Yes BA MA and higher

30 184 60 154 56 158 91 123

13.4 84.6 28.7 71.3 23.1 76.9 38.5 61.3

Instruments Sense of Role Competence. The 23-item questionnaire was developed by Wagner and Morse (1975). The items measure the extent to which individuals have confidence in their ability to master their jobs and their work environment. Participants were asked to indicate the extent to which they agree with each item, on a 4-point scale ranging from 1 (strongly agree) to 4 (strongly disagree). Factor analyses performed by the authors of the questionnaire revealed four themes: (a) general sense of role competence (e.g., “Mastering this job means a lot to me”), (b) task knowledge/problem solving (e.g., “Problems are easy to solve once you understand the various consequences of your actions, a skill I have acquired”), (c) influence (“ I go home the same way I arrive in the morning, feeling I have not accomplish a whole lot”), and (d) confidence (e.g., “No one knows this job better than I do”). The Cronbach’s alpha reliabilities for the two research groups as reported by Wagner and Morse were .96 and .84, respectively. For each of the items reflecting the four factors, the Cronbach’s alpha reliabilities ranged from .50 to .76. In the present study, the Cronbach’s alpha internal consistency of the first three factors ranged from .63 for a general sense of role competence to .76 for task knowledge and problem solving. Owing to the low internal consistency of the fourth factor, we used only the first three factors in the present study. Background Questionnaire. The questionnaire included items relating to gender, year of birth, marital status, number of children, education, place of work, job, and years of work experience. Exposure to Family Violence. Participants were asked how many hours a week they interacted with the victims of violence or with offenders.


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Secondary Traumatic Stress scale. The instrument was based on a questionnaire developed by Bride et al. (2003), and was translated into Hebrew by three judges for the present study. The questionnaire aimed to examine symptoms that arise in therapists during the course of their work with trauma victims, and included 17 items relating to traumatic symptoms, as expressed in three areas: (a) intrusion (e.g., “Reminders of my work with clients upset me”), (b) avoidance (e.g., “I felt emotionally numb”), (c) arousal (e.g., “I had trouble sleeping”). Participants were asked to indicate how often they had experienced the different types of symptoms as a result of their work over the past 7 days. Responses were on a 5-point scale, ranging from 1 (never) to 5 (very frequently). One score was derived for each participant, which reflected their overall level of secondary traumatization. The Cronbach’s alpha reliability of the questionnaire used by the investigators in this study was .93, and the internal consistency levels for the three factors ranged from .80 for intrusion to .87 for avoidance. A general index of secondary traumatization was constructed for the present study, and the Cronbach’s alpha reliability of the items was .88. Mastery. The questionnaire was developed by Pearlin and Schooler (1978) and translated into Hebrew by Hobfoll and Walfisch (1984). The questionnaire examines feelings of control over the environment and the future, and includes seven items (e.g., “Whatever happens to me depends primarily on myself”). Participants were asked to rate the degree of their agreement on a 5-point scale. Hobfoll and Walfisch reported a Cronbach’s alpha internal reliability value of .88 for the questionnaire used in their study. The Cronbach’s alpha internal reliability of the questionnaire used in the present study was .73. Self-Esteem scale. The questionnaire was developed by Rosenberg (1965) and translated into Hebrew by Hobfoll and Walfisch (1984). The questionnaire consists of 10 items (e.g., “I feel I do not have much to be proud of”). Participants were asked to indicate the extent to which they agree with the item, on a 5-point scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Hobfoll and Walfisch reported a Cronbach’s alpha internal reliability value of .95 for the Hebrew version of the scale. The Cronbach’s alpha reliability of the questionnaire used in the present study was .77. Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support. The questionnaire was developed by Zimmet, Dahlem, Zimmet, and Fanley (1988), and aims to investigate participants’ perceptions of emotional and social support received from family, friends, and significant others. The questionnaire consists of


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12 items that examine support from three sources: (a) family (e.g., “My family really tries to help me”), (b) friends (e.g., “I can count on my friends when things go wrong”), and (c) significant others (e.g., “There is a special person who is around when I am in need”). Participants were asked to indicate the extent to which they agree with each statement, on a 7-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (very strongly disagree) to 7 (very strongly agree). The Cronbach’s alpha reliability reported by the author of the questionnaire was .88. In the present study, the Cronbach’s alpha reliability of the first three factors ranged from .87 for significant others to .89 for family. The Cronbach’s alpha reliability for the general measure of social support used in the present study was .92. Colleague Support Questionnaire. The questionnaire was developed by Aviram and Katan (1989), and consists of four items describing possible attitudes of their coworkers (e.g., “They show warmth and friendship when something is bothering me and when I encounter difficulties”). Participants were asked to indicate the extent to which they agree with each item, on a 4-point scale ranging from 1 (not true at all) to 4 (very true). The Cronbach’s alpha reliability reported by Azar (2003) was .87. In the present study, the Cronbach’s alpha reliability was .88. Managerial Support Questionnaire. The questionnaire was developed by Aviram and Katan (1989), and examines support from managers. Based on the items in the Colleague Support Questionnaire, participants were asked to evaluate the extent to which each describes the possible attitudes of their managers at work. The Cronbach’s alpha reliability of the questionnaire used in the present study was .90.

Procedure The Service for Individual and Family Welfare at the Ministry of Social Affairs in Israel approved the study by an ethic committee, and participants were assured of anonymity and confidentiality. Staff members of battered women’s shelters and centers for prevention of violence throughout the country were contacted by telephone and asked to participate in the study. These workers worked individually or in group settings with victims or perpetrators of abuse. At the same time, they engaged in mediation and advocacy vis-à-vis other entities in the community. The researcher mailed questionnaires to those who consented to participate in the study. After filling out the questionnaire anonymously, the participants returned it to the researcher by post in a sealed, pre-paid envelope. Concomitantly, questionnaires were distributed to


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therapists at social service bureaus in Israel. These workers deal with families in situations of risk and crisis, including situations of domestic violence. After follow-up telephone calls were made to all of the participants in the sample, the response rate was 70%.

Findings As mentioned, the study aimed to examine variables in the personal, environmental, and occupational dimension that contribute to the social worker’s sense of role competence.

The Relationship Between the Research Variables and Sense of Role Competence Table 2 presents Pearson’s correlations between the research variables and sense of role competence. Table 2. Pearson’s Correlations Between the Research Variables and the Three Components of Role Competence.

Years of work experience Exposure to violence Secondary traumatization Self-esteem Mastery Social support Support from colleagues Support from managers

Competence

Knowledge

Influence

.19*** .27*** .06 .17* .20** .19** .21** .23**

.33*** .28*** −.29*** .34*** .33*** .27*** .19** .24***

.21** .15* −.54*** .30*** .47*** .20** .18** .14*

*p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.

As shown in the table, the research variables correlated significantly with all of the components of sense of role competence, except for the relationship between secondary traumatization and general sense of competence.

The Contribution of Exposure to Violence, Secondary Traumatization, Personal Variables, and Support Systems to the Social Workers’ Sense of Role Competence To examine the extent to which each of the research variables explained the variance in the social workers’ sense of role competence, hierarchical


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regressions were carried out in four steps. In the first step, exposure to violence was entered. The variable years of experience in the field of social work were also entered in that step to control for its contribution to sense of role competence. In the second step, secondary traumatization was entered separately to examine its specific contribution to sense of role competence. In the third step, the personal variables self-esteem and mastery were entered, in addition to the therapists’ support systems. In the fourth step, the interactions between secondary traumatization and the rest of the variables were entered through the stepwise regression method to examine the specific effect of secondary traumatization. Stepwise regression is carried out by testing one independent variable at a time. If the variable is statistically significant, it is included in the regression equation. Table 3 below presents the results of the regression analyses, and shows that the interaction was significant. The regression analysis conducted to explain the variance in the component of general sense of competence reveals that in the first step, the contribution of exposure to family violence and years of experience in the field was significant. No specific contribution was found for secondary traumatization in the second step. In the third step, when the personal variables (mastery and self-esteem) and social support variables were entered, the contribution of mastery and managerial support was found to be significant, and these variables added 10% to explaining the variance in general sense of competence, over and above the variance explained in the previous steps. In the fourth step, the contribution of the interaction between secondary traumatization and social support was not significant. On the whole, the variables that were found to be significant explained 15% of the variance in the participants’ general sense of competence. With regard to the component of task knowledge/problem solving, the findings indicate that in the first step of the regression, years of experience and exposure to family violence contributed significantly to explaining the variance in that variable. In the second step, secondary traumatization contributed 5% to explaining the variance in task knowledge/problem solving, over and above the contribution of exposure to family violence and years of experience in the field. In the third step, self-esteem, mastery, and managerial support contributed 13% to explaining the variance in task knowledge/problem solving, over and above the contribution of the variables entered in the previous steps. In the fourth step, the interaction between secondary traumatization and social support did not contribute significantly to task knowledge/ problem solving. On the whole, the variables that were found to be significant explained 31% of the variance in this component. Regarding the component of influence, the findings indicate that in the first step years of experience contributed significantly to explaining the variance. In


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β

*p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.

Step 1 Exposure .16* Years of experience .20* Step 2 Secondary traumatization −.04 Step 3 Self-esteem .07 Mastery .16* .06 Social support Colleague support .07 Managerial support .15 Step 4 Social support × Secondary traumatization F R2

.14 .01 −.03 .05 .12 .03 .05 .08

.05 .04 .06 .03 .05 .04

B

.06 .00

SE B

Competence

4.67*** .15***

.10***

.00

.05**

ΔR2

.18** .17* .06 −.04 .19**

−.24***

.14* .30***

β

.05 .06 .04 .06 .05

.06

.07 .00

SE B

.14 .16 .04 −.03 .14

−.24

.12 .02

B

Knowledge

8.90*** .31***

.13***

.05***

.10***

ΔR2

.04 .05 .03 .05 .04 .02

18**

.05

.07 .00

SE B

.11

.02 .24 .00 −.04 .04

−.47

−.02 .01

B

Influence

.03 .29*** .00 −.05 .07

−.52***

−.02 .17*

β

Table 3. Hierarchical Regressions to Explain the Variance in the Three Components of Competence.

14.26*** .41**

.05* .25*** .08*** .03**

ΔR2

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the second step, secondary traumatization contributed an additional 25% to explaining the variance in influence. In the third step, mastery contributed an additional 8% to explaining the variance in that component, over and above the significant contribution of secondary traumatization. In the fourth and last step, a significant interaction was found between secondary traumatization and social support. This interaction is reflected in the Pearson’s correlations between secondary traumatization and influence, which were calculated separately for participants with high and low levels of social support. A significant high correlation was found among participants with low levels of social support (r = .39, p < .001), whereas the correlation was significant but much lower among participants with high levels of social support (r = −.05, p < .05). That is, participants with higher levels of secondary traumatization had lower levels of influence, and this finding was particularly significant among those who had low levels of social support. On the whole, the variables that were found to be significant explained 41% of the variance in the component of influence.

Discussion Based on the OCM, the study aimed to examine factors that contribute to the social worker’s subjective sense of role competence. The findings of the study provide new insights into the factors that contribute to a sense of competence among social workers who are exposed to family violence and add to the existing literature on other populations of therapists. Regarding the occupational dimension of the OCM, work in the field of family violence was found to contribute significantly to the component of general sense of competence as well as to the component of task knowledge/ problem solving. This finding can be explained by the substantial investment of the Israeli Ministry of Social Affairs and Social Services in developing knowledge and competence among social workers in the field of family violence. Thus, it is possible that the more social workers are exposed to this field, the more in-service training programs will be offered to provide knowledge and skills for interventions with this population. Regarding the personal dimension, the most interesting finding related to the significant contribution of secondary traumatization to the component of influence and to the component of task knowledge/problem solving. In Wagner and Morse’s (1975) sense of role competence questionnaire, the component of influence related to people’s perceptions of themselves as influencing others and as having the ability to control their work environment. The component of knowledge/problem solving in that questionnaire reflected the extent of the therapists’ confidence in the knowledge at their disposal and in their ability to solve problems at work. The finding that


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secondary traumatization contributed to those components is consistent with the results of studies which have revealed these phenomena, such as burnout and vicarious traumatization, which also reflect the association between the therapists’ negative feelings in their workplace and their perceptions of themselves being influential in their work environment, and as having enough knowledge and training in their field of work (Murray & Graves, 2008). It appears the array of traumatic feelings that characterize secondary traumatization such as helplessness and despair, can undermine the confidence that workers have in their ability to influence processes in the workplace. Similarly, they can undermine the workers’ confidence in their ability to obtain sufficient resources to function in their job or to make therapeutic decisions that will benefit their clients (Dutton & Rubinstein, 1995). Further to this finding, the variables mastery and self-esteem were also examined at the personal level, and mastery was found to contribute significantly to all of the components of sense of role competence (especially influence). In this context, the question arose whether the component of influence in the sense of role competence overlaps with mastery. However, examination of the items in the questionnaire reveals a substantial difference between these two variables. As a personal resource, mastery reflects one’s ability for emotional regulation and the feeling of having control over one’s life. In contrast, the component of influence reflects a feeling that one can have an impact on processes in the workplace. According to the literature, mastery determines the extent to which individuals invest efforts in coping with obstacles encountered in the process of attaining goals (Folkman, 1984), and includes coping abilities that are directed toward seeking knowledge to solve problems (Regehr et al., 2004; Rosenbaum, 1980). It is possible that as a component of the social worker’s mastery, these skills are manifested in the context of work by a higher sense of general competence and a constant search for knowledge, as well as by the social workers’ feeling that they are capable of dealing with the cases under their care. Given the lack of research literature on this topic, these findings highlight the importance of mastery as a resource that can help social workers enhance their sense of role competence. Regarding self-esteem, it is interesting to note that this variable did not contribute significantly to sense of role competence, except for the component of task knowledge/problem solving. Research in the field of labor studies has revealed that people with high self-esteem tend to perceive themselves as having extensive knowledge in their professional field (Pierce, 2004). Thus, it can be argued that the higher the therapists’ self-esteem, the more they will tend to seek knowledge relating to their field of work, which in turn contributes to their self-esteem.


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Regarding the environmental dimension, as mentioned, the contribution of social support, colleague support, and managerial support was examined. Surprisingly, only managerial support contributed significantly to explaining the variance in the participants’ sense of role competence as reflected in the component of task knowledge/problem solving. Thus, the higher the levels of managerial support, the higher the participants’ levels of sense of general competence and knowledge. This finding highlights the contribution of managerial support to the social worker’s sense of role competence. Managerial support often affects the performance of social workers through the provision of appropriate training and with the resources such as training and supervision, which they need to do their job (Babin & Boles, 1996). Why was the contribution of the other two types of support (social support and support from colleagues) to the participants’ sense of role competence insignificant? This question is particularly relevant in light of literature that emphasizes the importance of these variables (Lysaght et al., 2001). A possible explanation relates to the context of the therapists’ work. That is, most of the participants were employed in public services, which are characterized by a heavy caseload, lack of resources, and lack of forums for support in the workplace (Slattery & Goodman, 2009). All of this prevents social workers from being able to consult with their colleagues and enhance each other’s sense of role competence. Regarding social support outside of the workplace, it is possible that social workers are less inclined to share their problems at work with family members. This might be for reasons of confidentiality, or because they are afraid of burdening their family members (Cerney, 1995). Therefore, this kind of support cannot contribute to the social worker’s sense of role competence. However, support outside of the workplace was found to mediate the negative relationship between secondary traumatization and the component of influence. Thus, it is possible that the more social workers feel helpless and experience symptoms of secondary traumatization, the more they will seek social support outside of the workplace in an attempt to gain a sense of competence in their jobs.

Summary and Recommendations The main findings of this study indicate that exposure to the field of family violence contributes to the social worker’s general sense of role competence and to the component of task knowledge/problem solving. In addition, the substantial contribution of secondary traumatization to the components of influence and task knowledge/problem solving is noteworthy. This finding indicates that exposure to traumatic content and the emotional state of the


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therapist affect the knowledge they have at their disposal and their sense of control over their work environment. These findings highlight the need to enhance the awareness of social workers and their supervisors regarding the negative implications of their work, and regarding the relationship between these consequences and their sense of role competence. Toward that end, we recommend conducting study days for therapists and their supervisors. In addition, there is a need to allocate resources for developing a system of ongoing prevention and treatment for social workers who experience the negative implications of their work. An important resource like this can provide a supportive supervision setting that legitimizes the feelings of these workers. This kind of legitimation might help mitigate the distress resulting from their work and reduce their sense of helplessness in their jobs. Furthermore, the results of the study emphasized the significant contribution of managerial support to providing workers with a sense of role competence. This finding further highlights the need to introduce the component of support as well as the importance of training managers in this field. Concomitantly, it is important to find ways to help social workers enhance their role competence by utilizing the support networks at their disposal, especially support from colleagues. Toward that end, joint supervision groups can be established as a forum for sharing difficulties and mutual enrichment. In conclusion, the findings of this study shed light on the factors that contribute to the sense of role competence among social workers. One limitation of the study is that the findings relate to a specific population of therapists or to a specific country, that is, Israel. Therefore, to generalize the findings, it would be worthwhile to conduct further research on the topic among social workers who have been exposed to trauma victims in other organizational settings. Declaration of Conflicting Interests The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

References Acker, G., & Lawrence, D. (2009). Social work and managed care: Measuring competence, burnout, and role stress of workers providing mental health services in a managed care era. Journal of Social Work, 9, 269-283.


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Author Biography Anat Ben-Porat is a lecturer at the school of social work, Bar Ilan university, Israel.


Early Social-Emotional Functioning and Public Health: The Relationship Between Kindergarten Social Competence and Future Wellness.

Communications between doctors and social workers in a general practice.

The relationship between twin language, twins' close ties, and social competence.

Think fast! The relationship between goal prediction speed and social competence in infants.

Relationship among environmental and demographic variables and teacher-rated hyperactivity.

Relationship between Achievement Goals and Students' Self-Reported Personal and Social Responsibility Behaviors.

Relationship between death anxiety and demographic variables.

Domain of competence: Personal and professional development.

Incongruence between trauma center social workers' beliefs about substance use interventions and intentions to intervene.

Investigating the relationship between competence and patient outcome with CBT.

Comparison of Personal, Social and Academic Variables Related to University Drop-out and Persistence.

Corrigendum: Comparison of Personal, Social and Academic Variables Related to University Drop-out and Persistence.

The relationship between bipolar disorders, anxiety, and trauma - implications for clinical practice.

Conceptualizing the Dynamics between Bicultural Identification and Personal Social Networks.

The role of part-time social workers in general practice.

Citizenship as practice: Handling communication problems in encounters between persons with dementia and social workers.

Management of noma: practice competence and knowledge among healthcare workers in a rural district of Zambia.

Social media and your practice: navigating the surgeon-patient relationship.

The AIDS epidemic: professional and personal concerns of graduate social work students in field placement.

Trauma Therapists' Clinical Applications, Training, and Personal Practice of Mindfulness and Meditation.

Bullying in preschool: The associations between participant roles, social competence, and social preference.

An investigation of the relationship between environmental factors and job satisfaction in intensive nursing, with particular reference to spinal trauma.

One step at a time in investigating relationships between self-directed behaviours and parasitological, social and environmental variables.

Relationship between agoraphobia and field dependence.