0195-5616/91 $0.00
Pet Avian Medicine
+ .20
Common Infectious Diseases of Psittacine Birds Seen in Practice
Edward L. Spenser, DVM, MS*
The small animal practitioner who treats pet birds sees a wide variety of infectious disease problems. Some infectious diseases are rarely seen by the pet bird practitioner unless he or she has avicultural, importation, or pet store clients. Some are common to all situations. This article briefly discusses the infectious diseases, including diagnosis and treatments most likely to be encountered by the average practitioner in clinical pet bird practice. Table 1 provides common drug doses, working concentrations, and volumes of administration for many commonly used drugs. A reference and reading list is provided for more detailed discussions of the infectious agents covered. CHLAMYDIA Chlamydiosis is a multisystem disease of mammals and birds. It is caused by Chlamydia psittaci, an obligate intracellular parasite. The disease is also known as psittacosis, ornithosis, and "parrot fever." It is considered a zoonotic disease and is reportable to many state and public health agencies. Chlamydiosis can be found in single pet birds as well as breeding colonies, pet stores, and other high-density populations. There is no "sacred" bird that cannot come down with this disease. Chlamydia can reside in latent form in macrophages or other cells and become "activated" during stress periods. Thus single pet birds with no recent exposure to other birds can develop active chlamydiosis. [Editor's note: The new BELISA test (see article on Chlamydia testing) has shown that possibly 50% of the pet psittacine population may be infected.] The infection can manifest itself in a variety of ways, from few or no symptoms to a fatal systemic disease. Strain virulence appears to affect clinical course. Pathogenesis Shedders may be actively infected individuals or chronic "carriers." Chlamydia! organisms are transmitted primarily by fecal dust as well as feather dust, aerosolized secretions, and fecal contamination of water and food. Poor ventilation, crowding, and other stresses enhance this process. Vertical transmission can occur by eggshell contamination, droppings, and regurgitated food contamination. The existence of *Private Practitioner, Wheaton, Maryland Veterinary Clinics of North America: Small Animal Practice-Yo!. 21, No. 6, November 1991
1213
1214
EDWARD L. SPENSER
Table 1. Drug Dosages for Birds* DRUG STRENGTH DRUG NAME PARENTERAL DRUGS
OR HOW DOSED
Amikacin 5 5 mglmL Amikacin 25 25 mg/mL 50 mg/mL Amikacin 50t Baytril 22.7 mglmL Calcium EDTAt 200 mg/mL Calcium EDTA 50 mg/mL 10 mglmL Calphosan Carbenicillin 200 mglmL Centrinet 0.5 mg/mL 200 mg/mL Claforan Depo Proverat 100 mglmL 4 mg/mL Dexameth NaP04* Doxycycline IVt 100 mg/mL 50 mg/mL Gentocint Injacom +B 1 per mL Ivermectin 1:10 (0.1%)t 1 mglmL Ivermectin 1:100 (0.01%) 0.1 mg/mL 1 per mL Oxytocint Piperacillin 200 mg/mL Tobramycint 40 mglmL Tribrissen 24% 1 per mL Valium 5 mg/mL Vibravenos doxy (Euro) 20 mg/mL 10 mglmL Vitamin Kt
VOLUME TO ADMINISTER BIRD WEIGHTS IN GRAMS
DRUG
DRUG
DOSE MG/KG
ISTRATION
25
30
35
bid bid bid bid bid bid pm bid pm bid
0.09 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.02 0 0.02 0.01 0.03 0 0 0.01 0
0.11 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.03 0.04 0.02 0 0.02 0.01 0.04 0.01 0 0.01 0
0.12 0.15 0.18 0.21 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.02 O.o3 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.01 0.91 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.04 0.05 0.06 O.o7 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.08 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.2 0
0.1 0.01 0.03 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.25 0
0.12 0.01 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.3 0
0.14 0.02 0.04 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.35 0
0.16 0.02 0.04 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.4 0.01
O.o7 0.08
0.1 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.05 0.17 0.13
0.12 0.04 0.02 0.03 0.06 0.2 0.15
0.14 0.04 0.02 0.04 0.07 0.23 0.18
0.16 0.05 0.02 0.04 0.08 0.26 0.2
15 15 15 15
ADMIN-
100 30 4 20 10 0.25 0.2
bid pm q14d
0.08 0.02 0 0.02 0 0.02 0.03 0.01 0 0.01 0 0.03 0 0 0.01 0
0.2 0.25 100 10 0.25 0.5 100 1
q14d pm bid bid bid pm q7d pm
0.05 0 0.01 0 0.01 0.01 0.13 0
0.06 0.01 0.02 0 0.01 0.01 0.15 0
0.07 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.18 0
2 15 15 25 25 3.3 25
bid bid bid bid bid bid bid
0.05 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.08 0.06
0.06 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.1 0.08
0.02 0.01 0.02 0.04 0.12 0.09
40 40
10 100
O.o7
once once once
40
50
60
70
80
0.24 0.05 0.02 0.05 0.02 0.06 0.08 0.04 0.01 0.04 0.02 0.08 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02
ORAL DRUGS FOR BIRDS
Bactrim oral susp Baytril 1:1 2.5% susp. Baytril 5% susp. Flagyl 250 (Mex) susp. Flagyl 125 (Mex) susp. Nystatin susp. Vibramycin syrup
1 per mL 25 mg/mL 50 mglmL 50 mg/mL 25 mg/mL 1 per mL 10 mg/mL
0.02 0.01 0.02 0.04 0.13 0.1
*The doses provided are the ones most commonly used in pet avian practice and are listed for the convenience of the reader. The authors, editors, and the WB Saunders Company do not assume any liabilities for any problems associated with their use. tDoses rounded to nearest 1/100 of mL. Doses calculated smaller than 1/100 mL (0.01 mL) shown as 0 (zero) and may require dilution for birds with very small body weights. Some drug strengths represent common in-house dilutions many practitioners use. tMedian shock dose. direct embryonic transmission is controversial. 46 Genetic, nutritional, environmental, and reproductive factors greatly influence the course of the disease.
Diagnosis Definitive ante-mortem diagnosis of chlamydiosis is often a frustrating task. Definitive diagnosis is made through isolation and identification of chlamydial organisms. After growth in chicken embryo or tissue culture, the organism is identified by immunofluorescence antibody testing. This is a time-consuming procedure, commonly done in many governmental and some private laboratories. Samples from live birds with active chlamydiosis may include cloacal swabs or feces. Check with your local diagnostic laboratory to see what they require. Chlamydial cytology can occasionally be useful. 12 Exudates are stained, and in this way the organism can be identified in many commercial laboratories. Stains used routinely include Gimenez and Macchiavellos.
COMMON INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF PSITIACINE BIRDS SEEN IN PRACTICE
1215
Table 1. Drug Dosages for Birds* (Continued). BIRD WEIGHTS IN GRAMS
90
IOO
150
200
0.27 0.05 0.03 0.06 0.02
0.3 0.06 0.03
0.09 0.05 0.01 0.05 0.03 0.09 0,02 0.02 0.02 0.02
0.02 0.08 0.1 0.05 0.01 0.05 0.03 0.1 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.02
0.45 0.09 0.05 0.1 0.03 0.12 0.15 0.08 0.02 0.08 0.05 0.15 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.03
0.18 0.03 0.05 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.45 0.01
0.2 0.03 0.05 0.03 0.03 0.01 0.5 0.01
0.18 0.05 0.03 0.05 0.09 0.3 0.23
0.2 0.06 0.03 0.05 0.1 0.33 0.25
O.o7
O.o7
300
350
400
450
500
600
700
800
900
1000
0.6 0.12 0.06 0.13 0.04 0.16 0.2 0.1 0.03 0.1 0.06 0.2. 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.04
0.9 0.18 0.09 0.2 0.06 0.24 0.3 0.15 0.04 0.15 0.09 0.3 0.06 0.06 0.08 0.06
1.05 0.21 0.11 0.23
1.35 0.27 0.14 0.3 0.09 0.36 0.45 0.23 0.06 0.23 0.14 0.45 0.09 0.09 0.11 0.09
1.5 0.3 0.15 0.33 0.1 0.4 0.5 0.25
O.o7
1.2 0.24 0.12 0.26 0.08 0.32 0.4 0.2 0.06 0.2 0.12 0.4 0.08 0.08 0.1 0.08
0.25 0.15 0.5 0.1 0.1 0.13 0.1
1.8 0.36 0.18 0.4 0.12 0.48 0.6 0.3 0.08 0.3 0.18 0.6 0.12 0.12 0.15 0.12
2.1 0.42 0.21 0.46 0.14 0.56 0.7 0.35 0.1 0.35 0.21 0.7 0.14 0.14 0.18 0.14
2.4 0.48 0.24 0.53 0.16 p.64 0.8 0.4 0.11 0.4 0.24 0.8 0.16 0.16 0.2 0.16
2.7 0.54 0.27 0.59 0.18 0.72 0.9 0.45 0.13 0.45 0.27 0.9 0.18 0.18 0.23 0.18
3 0.6 0.3 0.66 0.2 0.8 1 0.5 0.14 0.5 0.3 1 0.2 0.2 0.25 0.2
0.3 0.04 0.08 0.04 0.04 0.01 0.75 0.02
0.4 0.05 0.1 0.05 0.05 0.02 1 0.02
0.6 0.08 0.15 0.08 0.08 0.03 1.5 0.03
0.7 0.09 0.18 0.09 0.09 0.04 l. 75 0.04
0.8 0.10 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.04 2 0.04
0.9 0.12 0.23 0.11 0.11 0.04 2.25 0.05
1 0.13 0.25 0.13 0.13 0.05 2.5 0.05
1.2 0.15 0.3 0.15 0.15 0.06 3 0.06
1.4 0.17 0.35 0.18 0.18 0.07 3.5
O.o7
1.6 0.20 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.08 4 0.08
1.8 0.22 0.45 0.23 0.23 0.09 4.5 0.09
2 0.25 0.5 0.25 0.25 0.1 5 0.1
0.3 0.09 0.05 0.08 0.15 0.5 0.38
0.4 0.12 0.06 0.1 0.2 0.66 0.5
0.6 0.18 0.09 0.15 0.3 0.99 0.75
0.7 0.21 0.11 0.18 0.35 1.16 0.88
0.8 0.24 0.12 0.2 0.4 1.32 1
0.9 0.27 0.14 0.23 0.45 1.49 1.13
1 0.3 0.15 0.25 0.5 1.65 1.25
1.2 0.36 0.18 0.3 0.6 1.98 1.5
1.4 0.42 0.21 0.35 0.7 2.31 l. 75
1.6 0.48 0.24 0.4 0.8 2.64 2
1.8 0.54 0.27 0.45 0.9 2.97 2.25
2 0.6 0.3 0.5 1 3.3 2.5
O.o7
0.28 0.35 0.18 0.05 0.18 0.11 0.35
O.o7 O.o7
0.09
O.o7
Many serologic and antigen tests are now available. 6 • 12• 17• 32 There is no one perfect test as all have strengths and weaknesses. Early stage infections often test negative serologically owing to lack of production of sufficient humoral antibody. Chronic or longer standing infections may be diagnosed with these tests, and titers can be monitored over time. A latex agglutination test has been available from Texas A & M University for some time. 32 This serologic test detects lgM activity and thus indicates a current infection. This test is also useful for monitoring rising or falling antibody levels and therapeutic efficacy. Limitations include its inability to be used with lovebirds, a high incidence of false-negative results in cockatiels and budgerigars, and difficulty in obtaining sufficient serum or plasma sample volume from very small birds. A complement fixation (CF) test is also available. Interpreting the significance of moderate titers is difficult, however, as it is with the persistence of high titers in treated birds. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) testing has recently become available. The reader is referred to the article on chlamydia! diagnosis for a more complete discussion. The Kodak Surecell (Eastman Kodak Co. Clinical Products
1216
EowARD L.
SPENSER
Division, Rochester, NY) test was developed for detecting C. trachomatis antigens in humans. It also can detect C. psittaci antigen in samples from pet birds. The test can be used on tissue or cloacal swabs and can be performed by in-house personnel. Current recommendations are to swab the choana, cloaca, and feces on the same swab (in that order) to collect the sample. The swabs included in the kit are best used for collection because wood and calcium alginate, among other substances, can alter test results. Other ELISA tests include the IDEIA (Novo, United Kingdom), available through select commercial laboratories. 17 A blocking antibody ELISA or BELISA test was developed in Germany and is available in the United States through commercial laboratories (IDEIA, Novo, United Kingdom). This test is commonly performed using serologi
Pet Avian Medicine
+ .20
Common Infectious Diseases of Psittacine Birds Seen in Practice
Edward L. Spenser, DVM, MS*
The small animal practitioner who treats pet birds sees a wide variety of infectious disease problems. Some infectious diseases are rarely seen by the pet bird practitioner unless he or she has avicultural, importation, or pet store clients. Some are common to all situations. This article briefly discusses the infectious diseases, including diagnosis and treatments most likely to be encountered by the average practitioner in clinical pet bird practice. Table 1 provides common drug doses, working concentrations, and volumes of administration for many commonly used drugs. A reference and reading list is provided for more detailed discussions of the infectious agents covered. CHLAMYDIA Chlamydiosis is a multisystem disease of mammals and birds. It is caused by Chlamydia psittaci, an obligate intracellular parasite. The disease is also known as psittacosis, ornithosis, and "parrot fever." It is considered a zoonotic disease and is reportable to many state and public health agencies. Chlamydiosis can be found in single pet birds as well as breeding colonies, pet stores, and other high-density populations. There is no "sacred" bird that cannot come down with this disease. Chlamydia can reside in latent form in macrophages or other cells and become "activated" during stress periods. Thus single pet birds with no recent exposure to other birds can develop active chlamydiosis. [Editor's note: The new BELISA test (see article on Chlamydia testing) has shown that possibly 50% of the pet psittacine population may be infected.] The infection can manifest itself in a variety of ways, from few or no symptoms to a fatal systemic disease. Strain virulence appears to affect clinical course. Pathogenesis Shedders may be actively infected individuals or chronic "carriers." Chlamydia! organisms are transmitted primarily by fecal dust as well as feather dust, aerosolized secretions, and fecal contamination of water and food. Poor ventilation, crowding, and other stresses enhance this process. Vertical transmission can occur by eggshell contamination, droppings, and regurgitated food contamination. The existence of *Private Practitioner, Wheaton, Maryland Veterinary Clinics of North America: Small Animal Practice-Yo!. 21, No. 6, November 1991
1213
1214
EDWARD L. SPENSER
Table 1. Drug Dosages for Birds* DRUG STRENGTH DRUG NAME PARENTERAL DRUGS
OR HOW DOSED
Amikacin 5 5 mglmL Amikacin 25 25 mg/mL 50 mg/mL Amikacin 50t Baytril 22.7 mglmL Calcium EDTAt 200 mg/mL Calcium EDTA 50 mg/mL 10 mglmL Calphosan Carbenicillin 200 mglmL Centrinet 0.5 mg/mL 200 mg/mL Claforan Depo Proverat 100 mglmL 4 mg/mL Dexameth NaP04* Doxycycline IVt 100 mg/mL 50 mg/mL Gentocint Injacom +B 1 per mL Ivermectin 1:10 (0.1%)t 1 mglmL Ivermectin 1:100 (0.01%) 0.1 mg/mL 1 per mL Oxytocint Piperacillin 200 mg/mL Tobramycint 40 mglmL Tribrissen 24% 1 per mL Valium 5 mg/mL Vibravenos doxy (Euro) 20 mg/mL 10 mglmL Vitamin Kt
VOLUME TO ADMINISTER BIRD WEIGHTS IN GRAMS
DRUG
DRUG
DOSE MG/KG
ISTRATION
25
30
35
bid bid bid bid bid bid pm bid pm bid
0.09 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.02 0 0.02 0.01 0.03 0 0 0.01 0
0.11 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.03 0.04 0.02 0 0.02 0.01 0.04 0.01 0 0.01 0
0.12 0.15 0.18 0.21 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.02 O.o3 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.01 0.91 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.04 0.05 0.06 O.o7 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.08 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.2 0
0.1 0.01 0.03 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.25 0
0.12 0.01 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.3 0
0.14 0.02 0.04 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.35 0
0.16 0.02 0.04 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.4 0.01
O.o7 0.08
0.1 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.05 0.17 0.13
0.12 0.04 0.02 0.03 0.06 0.2 0.15
0.14 0.04 0.02 0.04 0.07 0.23 0.18
0.16 0.05 0.02 0.04 0.08 0.26 0.2
15 15 15 15
ADMIN-
100 30 4 20 10 0.25 0.2
bid pm q14d
0.08 0.02 0 0.02 0 0.02 0.03 0.01 0 0.01 0 0.03 0 0 0.01 0
0.2 0.25 100 10 0.25 0.5 100 1
q14d pm bid bid bid pm q7d pm
0.05 0 0.01 0 0.01 0.01 0.13 0
0.06 0.01 0.02 0 0.01 0.01 0.15 0
0.07 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.18 0
2 15 15 25 25 3.3 25
bid bid bid bid bid bid bid
0.05 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.08 0.06
0.06 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.1 0.08
0.02 0.01 0.02 0.04 0.12 0.09
40 40
10 100
O.o7
once once once
40
50
60
70
80
0.24 0.05 0.02 0.05 0.02 0.06 0.08 0.04 0.01 0.04 0.02 0.08 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02
ORAL DRUGS FOR BIRDS
Bactrim oral susp Baytril 1:1 2.5% susp. Baytril 5% susp. Flagyl 250 (Mex) susp. Flagyl 125 (Mex) susp. Nystatin susp. Vibramycin syrup
1 per mL 25 mg/mL 50 mglmL 50 mg/mL 25 mg/mL 1 per mL 10 mg/mL
0.02 0.01 0.02 0.04 0.13 0.1
*The doses provided are the ones most commonly used in pet avian practice and are listed for the convenience of the reader. The authors, editors, and the WB Saunders Company do not assume any liabilities for any problems associated with their use. tDoses rounded to nearest 1/100 of mL. Doses calculated smaller than 1/100 mL (0.01 mL) shown as 0 (zero) and may require dilution for birds with very small body weights. Some drug strengths represent common in-house dilutions many practitioners use. tMedian shock dose. direct embryonic transmission is controversial. 46 Genetic, nutritional, environmental, and reproductive factors greatly influence the course of the disease.
Diagnosis Definitive ante-mortem diagnosis of chlamydiosis is often a frustrating task. Definitive diagnosis is made through isolation and identification of chlamydial organisms. After growth in chicken embryo or tissue culture, the organism is identified by immunofluorescence antibody testing. This is a time-consuming procedure, commonly done in many governmental and some private laboratories. Samples from live birds with active chlamydiosis may include cloacal swabs or feces. Check with your local diagnostic laboratory to see what they require. Chlamydial cytology can occasionally be useful. 12 Exudates are stained, and in this way the organism can be identified in many commercial laboratories. Stains used routinely include Gimenez and Macchiavellos.
COMMON INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF PSITIACINE BIRDS SEEN IN PRACTICE
1215
Table 1. Drug Dosages for Birds* (Continued). BIRD WEIGHTS IN GRAMS
90
IOO
150
200
0.27 0.05 0.03 0.06 0.02
0.3 0.06 0.03
0.09 0.05 0.01 0.05 0.03 0.09 0,02 0.02 0.02 0.02
0.02 0.08 0.1 0.05 0.01 0.05 0.03 0.1 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.02
0.45 0.09 0.05 0.1 0.03 0.12 0.15 0.08 0.02 0.08 0.05 0.15 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.03
0.18 0.03 0.05 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.45 0.01
0.2 0.03 0.05 0.03 0.03 0.01 0.5 0.01
0.18 0.05 0.03 0.05 0.09 0.3 0.23
0.2 0.06 0.03 0.05 0.1 0.33 0.25
O.o7
O.o7
300
350
400
450
500
600
700
800
900
1000
0.6 0.12 0.06 0.13 0.04 0.16 0.2 0.1 0.03 0.1 0.06 0.2. 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.04
0.9 0.18 0.09 0.2 0.06 0.24 0.3 0.15 0.04 0.15 0.09 0.3 0.06 0.06 0.08 0.06
1.05 0.21 0.11 0.23
1.35 0.27 0.14 0.3 0.09 0.36 0.45 0.23 0.06 0.23 0.14 0.45 0.09 0.09 0.11 0.09
1.5 0.3 0.15 0.33 0.1 0.4 0.5 0.25
O.o7
1.2 0.24 0.12 0.26 0.08 0.32 0.4 0.2 0.06 0.2 0.12 0.4 0.08 0.08 0.1 0.08
0.25 0.15 0.5 0.1 0.1 0.13 0.1
1.8 0.36 0.18 0.4 0.12 0.48 0.6 0.3 0.08 0.3 0.18 0.6 0.12 0.12 0.15 0.12
2.1 0.42 0.21 0.46 0.14 0.56 0.7 0.35 0.1 0.35 0.21 0.7 0.14 0.14 0.18 0.14
2.4 0.48 0.24 0.53 0.16 p.64 0.8 0.4 0.11 0.4 0.24 0.8 0.16 0.16 0.2 0.16
2.7 0.54 0.27 0.59 0.18 0.72 0.9 0.45 0.13 0.45 0.27 0.9 0.18 0.18 0.23 0.18
3 0.6 0.3 0.66 0.2 0.8 1 0.5 0.14 0.5 0.3 1 0.2 0.2 0.25 0.2
0.3 0.04 0.08 0.04 0.04 0.01 0.75 0.02
0.4 0.05 0.1 0.05 0.05 0.02 1 0.02
0.6 0.08 0.15 0.08 0.08 0.03 1.5 0.03
0.7 0.09 0.18 0.09 0.09 0.04 l. 75 0.04
0.8 0.10 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.04 2 0.04
0.9 0.12 0.23 0.11 0.11 0.04 2.25 0.05
1 0.13 0.25 0.13 0.13 0.05 2.5 0.05
1.2 0.15 0.3 0.15 0.15 0.06 3 0.06
1.4 0.17 0.35 0.18 0.18 0.07 3.5
O.o7
1.6 0.20 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.08 4 0.08
1.8 0.22 0.45 0.23 0.23 0.09 4.5 0.09
2 0.25 0.5 0.25 0.25 0.1 5 0.1
0.3 0.09 0.05 0.08 0.15 0.5 0.38
0.4 0.12 0.06 0.1 0.2 0.66 0.5
0.6 0.18 0.09 0.15 0.3 0.99 0.75
0.7 0.21 0.11 0.18 0.35 1.16 0.88
0.8 0.24 0.12 0.2 0.4 1.32 1
0.9 0.27 0.14 0.23 0.45 1.49 1.13
1 0.3 0.15 0.25 0.5 1.65 1.25
1.2 0.36 0.18 0.3 0.6 1.98 1.5
1.4 0.42 0.21 0.35 0.7 2.31 l. 75
1.6 0.48 0.24 0.4 0.8 2.64 2
1.8 0.54 0.27 0.45 0.9 2.97 2.25
2 0.6 0.3 0.5 1 3.3 2.5
O.o7
0.28 0.35 0.18 0.05 0.18 0.11 0.35
O.o7 O.o7
0.09
O.o7
Many serologic and antigen tests are now available. 6 • 12• 17• 32 There is no one perfect test as all have strengths and weaknesses. Early stage infections often test negative serologically owing to lack of production of sufficient humoral antibody. Chronic or longer standing infections may be diagnosed with these tests, and titers can be monitored over time. A latex agglutination test has been available from Texas A & M University for some time. 32 This serologic test detects lgM activity and thus indicates a current infection. This test is also useful for monitoring rising or falling antibody levels and therapeutic efficacy. Limitations include its inability to be used with lovebirds, a high incidence of false-negative results in cockatiels and budgerigars, and difficulty in obtaining sufficient serum or plasma sample volume from very small birds. A complement fixation (CF) test is also available. Interpreting the significance of moderate titers is difficult, however, as it is with the persistence of high titers in treated birds. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) testing has recently become available. The reader is referred to the article on chlamydia! diagnosis for a more complete discussion. The Kodak Surecell (Eastman Kodak Co. Clinical Products
1216
EowARD L.
SPENSER
Division, Rochester, NY) test was developed for detecting C. trachomatis antigens in humans. It also can detect C. psittaci antigen in samples from pet birds. The test can be used on tissue or cloacal swabs and can be performed by in-house personnel. Current recommendations are to swab the choana, cloaca, and feces on the same swab (in that order) to collect the sample. The swabs included in the kit are best used for collection because wood and calcium alginate, among other substances, can alter test results. Other ELISA tests include the IDEIA (Novo, United Kingdom), available through select commercial laboratories. 17 A blocking antibody ELISA or BELISA test was developed in Germany and is available in the United States through commercial laboratories (IDEIA, Novo, United Kingdom). This test is commonly performed using serologi
