Perceptual and Motor Skills, 1992, 75, 78.
O Perceptual and Motor Skills 1992
COMMENT: UNIVERSALITY OF FORMAL OPERATIONAL THOUGHT ' T U N T U M E S. MWAMWENDA
University of Transkei Summary.-Piaget suggested four stages of development (sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete and formal operations) may be universally observed, but only the first rhree have been confirmed because few people attain formal operations. Both Westerners and Africans may attain formal operations, however, given the way they reason and interact in their milieu.
Piaget's stage of formal operations (7) is the highest level of thinking, at which a person is no longer restricted to reasoning based on concrete evidence (here and now) but is able to use imagination. One who can concentrate on things that have no existence except in his mind may reach a conclusion which is naturally sound. While universality of the first three stages of cognitive development has been confirmed, formal operations has not been. In the USA only a few adolescents, colIege students, and adults attain that stage (5, 6), and in Africa and Europe (5, 8) as well, perhaps because Piaget's postulates were based on development of a Western scientist (4). Since not all cultures value such thought, expectation of universal attainment may not be realistic; however, on a different task Africans whether educated or not may display formal operations: observe the problem-solving sessions in African families or communities, the level of analysis, arguing and counterarguing, and the use of metaphor and analogy (1). As Jahoda suggested (cf. 3, p. 75): "Many individuals in traditional societies can function at the level of formal operations in spheres familiar to them" (cf. also 2). This is congruent with Greenfield's (4) cultural relativity in cognitive development: "Ideally, development in non-western societies should be studied by members of the society. . . . [This] ideal type is a Living reality rather than merely a theoretical abstraction, just as the model of the Western scientist is a living reality for Piaget" (p. 325). REFERENCES T. S. Formal operational 1. CHERIAN,V. I., KARIIIKI,I). W., Kmm, G. F., & MWAMWENDA, reasoning in African university students. Journal of Psychology, 1988, 122, 487-498. 2. D A ~ E N P., R., & HERON,A. Cross-cultural tests of Piaget's theory. In H. C. Triandis & A. Heron (Eds.), Handbook ofcross-culturalprychology: developmental prychology. Vol. 4. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon, 1981. Pp. 295-341. 3. DASEN,I? R., NGMI,L., & LAVALLE, M. Cross-cultual training studies of concrete operations. In L. H. Eckensberger, W. J. Lonner, & Y. P. Poortinga (Eds.), Cross-cultural contributions to psychology. Amsterdam: Swets & Zeitlinger, 1979. Pp. 69-82. P. M. Cross-cultural research and Piagetian theory: paradox and pro ress In 4. GREENFIELD, K. Riegel & J. Meacham (Eds.), The developing individual in a changing wort$? ~ o l .1. The Hague: Mouton, 1976. Pp. 322-333. 5. MWAMWENDA, T. S. Educational psychology: an African perspective. Durban: Butterworths, 1-,-.. ORO T. S., & MWAMWENDA, B. B. Formal operations: operational thought among 6 . MWAMWENDA, African and Canadian college students. Psychological Reports, 1989, 64, 43-46. 7. PIAGET,J. Intellectual evolution from adolescence to adulthood. Human Development, 1972, 15, 1-12. 8. ROGOFF,B. Schooling and the development of cognitive skills. In H. C. Triandis & A. Heron (Eds.), Developmental psychology: handbook of cross-cultural psychology. Vol. 4 . Boston, MA: AUyn & Bacon, 1981. Pp. 233-294. Accepted June 2, 1992. 'Address correspondence to Prof. T. S. Mwamwenda, University of Transkei, Private Bag X I , Unitra, Transkei, Southern Africa.
O Perceptual and Motor Skills 1992
COMMENT: UNIVERSALITY OF FORMAL OPERATIONAL THOUGHT ' T U N T U M E S. MWAMWENDA
University of Transkei Summary.-Piaget suggested four stages of development (sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete and formal operations) may be universally observed, but only the first rhree have been confirmed because few people attain formal operations. Both Westerners and Africans may attain formal operations, however, given the way they reason and interact in their milieu.
Piaget's stage of formal operations (7) is the highest level of thinking, at which a person is no longer restricted to reasoning based on concrete evidence (here and now) but is able to use imagination. One who can concentrate on things that have no existence except in his mind may reach a conclusion which is naturally sound. While universality of the first three stages of cognitive development has been confirmed, formal operations has not been. In the USA only a few adolescents, colIege students, and adults attain that stage (5, 6), and in Africa and Europe (5, 8) as well, perhaps because Piaget's postulates were based on development of a Western scientist (4). Since not all cultures value such thought, expectation of universal attainment may not be realistic; however, on a different task Africans whether educated or not may display formal operations: observe the problem-solving sessions in African families or communities, the level of analysis, arguing and counterarguing, and the use of metaphor and analogy (1). As Jahoda suggested (cf. 3, p. 75): "Many individuals in traditional societies can function at the level of formal operations in spheres familiar to them" (cf. also 2). This is congruent with Greenfield's (4) cultural relativity in cognitive development: "Ideally, development in non-western societies should be studied by members of the society. . . . [This] ideal type is a Living reality rather than merely a theoretical abstraction, just as the model of the Western scientist is a living reality for Piaget" (p. 325). REFERENCES T. S. Formal operational 1. CHERIAN,V. I., KARIIIKI,I). W., Kmm, G. F., & MWAMWENDA, reasoning in African university students. Journal of Psychology, 1988, 122, 487-498. 2. D A ~ E N P., R., & HERON,A. Cross-cultural tests of Piaget's theory. In H. C. Triandis & A. Heron (Eds.), Handbook ofcross-culturalprychology: developmental prychology. Vol. 4. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon, 1981. Pp. 295-341. 3. DASEN,I? R., NGMI,L., & LAVALLE, M. Cross-cultual training studies of concrete operations. In L. H. Eckensberger, W. J. Lonner, & Y. P. Poortinga (Eds.), Cross-cultural contributions to psychology. Amsterdam: Swets & Zeitlinger, 1979. Pp. 69-82. P. M. Cross-cultural research and Piagetian theory: paradox and pro ress In 4. GREENFIELD, K. Riegel & J. Meacham (Eds.), The developing individual in a changing wort$? ~ o l .1. The Hague: Mouton, 1976. Pp. 322-333. 5. MWAMWENDA, T. S. Educational psychology: an African perspective. Durban: Butterworths, 1-,-.. ORO T. S., & MWAMWENDA, B. B. Formal operations: operational thought among 6 . MWAMWENDA, African and Canadian college students. Psychological Reports, 1989, 64, 43-46. 7. PIAGET,J. Intellectual evolution from adolescence to adulthood. Human Development, 1972, 15, 1-12. 8. ROGOFF,B. Schooling and the development of cognitive skills. In H. C. Triandis & A. Heron (Eds.), Developmental psychology: handbook of cross-cultural psychology. Vol. 4 . Boston, MA: AUyn & Bacon, 1981. Pp. 233-294. Accepted June 2, 1992. 'Address correspondence to Prof. T. S. Mwamwenda, University of Transkei, Private Bag X I , Unitra, Transkei, Southern Africa.
