youma

ofAdolescence 1990, 13, 143-155

Cognitive correlates of adolescents’ aspirations to leadership: a developmental study MING

SINGER”

The study examined age and gender differences in leadership aspirations among teenage adolescents. It was hypothesized that adolscents’ valence, selfefficacy and attribution perceptions about leadership would be predictive of their aspirations to leadership. Altogether 52 fourth form and 78 seventh form high school students completed a questionnaire measuring (a) overall leadership aspirations, (b) 13 valence-instrumentality expectancies for 13 leadership outcomes, (c) self-efficacy perceptions, and (d) attributions of effective leadership. The results revealed significant gender differences in valence scores and significant age differences in self-efficacy and attribution measures. Regression analyses indicated that fourth formers’ leadership aspirations were significantly predicted from their “ease-of-success” selfefficacy expectation; whereas seventh formers from either valence perceptions (males) or self-efficacy and attribution scores (females). These results were discussed in the context of the valence and self-efficacy models of career decision-making processes and attribution theory.

INTRODUCTION

The psychological literature on leadership has remained largely in the socialorganizational domain whereby the emphasis is on leadership style and effectiveness as well as subordinate satisfaction (e.g. Bass, 1985; Fiedler, 1986). While the recent developmental literature is replete with studies on educational or occupational aspirations (e.g. Hogg, Abrams and Patel, 1987; Marjoribanks, 1985; Saltiel, 1985), the development of young people’s leadership aspirations has so far not been examined. This study addresses such an issue. Two approaches are plausible in exploring aspirations to leadership. The first approach would identify specific personality traits that are predictive of an individual’s level of leadership aspirations. Under the cognitive approach, leadership aspirations would be conceptualized as a special case of career choice, the various models of career choice behaviour could then be applied in identifying the underlying cognitive determinants of

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to Ming Singer, Department 0

1990 The Association

of Psychology,

for the Psychiatric

University

of

Study of i\dolescents

144

M. SINGER

leadership aspirations. The present study took the latter approach by examining adolescents’ leadership aspirations within the theoretical framework of the valence

and self-efficacy

models,

as well as the attribution

theory.

The expectancy-valence model (Vroom, 1964; Mitchell, 1980) has frequently been applied to research in occupational choice and preference. This model makes the assumption function certain

of the perceived outcomes

(e.g.

that an individual’s

occupational

instrumentality

of an occupation

pay, social contacts,

achievement

choice is a joint

in the provision and fulfilment)

of and

the perceived desirability (or valence) of these outcomes to the individual. Brief, Van Sell, and Aldag (1979) h ave attempted to integrate the expectancyvalence model with Super’s (1963; 1969) vocational self-concept theory in accounting for vocational decision-making processes. Super’s theory represents a developmental approach to career choice and decision-making. According

to Super,

an individual’s

vocational

self-concept

guides

the three

stages of crystallizing, specifying, and implementing a vocational preference. Career choices, therefore, involve “choosing a means of implemeting a selfconcept”

(Super,

1951,

decision-making

p. 92).

literature,

vidual’s

vocational

process

(e.g.

self-concept

Feldman,

In their attempt

Brief

1976;

et al. (1979) is a result

Terborg,

to synthesize further

the vocational

argued

that an indi-

of the anticipatory

1977;

Van Maanen,

socialization 1975) when the

individual forms expectations about jobs before entering an organization. the job search process, these self-concepts and job expectations determine perceived

desirability

and instrumentality

of possible

job outcomes.

In the

Within

this framework, individual differences in career choice could be explained terms of differences in vocational socialization, which lead to the formation differential valence

self-concepts

and job

and instrumentality

expectations

and consequently

in of

different

expectancies.

In this context, the present study examined whether adolescents’ leadership aspirations could be predicted from the valence and intrumentality expectancies they attach to the possible outcomes of being in leadership positions.

Considering

the vocational

that both gender

socialization

lity expectancies, age differences

processes

and age differences

and hence the valence

might impact

on

and instrumenta-

it was hypothesized that there would be significant sex and in the valance measure as well as leadership aspirations

ratings. Bandura’s (1977; 1982) self-efficacy theory has recently been applied to account for gender differences in career choice behaviour. Hackett and Betz (1981) argued that the differential sex-role socialization process results in different career-related self-efficacy expectations, which are reflected in gender differences in occupational choices and preferences. Several studies have provided support for this claim (e.g. Betz and Hackett, 1981; 1986). Three measures of self-efficacy expectancies have been frequently used in

ADOLESCENTS’

ASPIRATIONS

TO LEADERSHIP

145

predicting occupational choice : “effectiveness” self-efficacy; “ability-match” self-efficacy; as well as “ease-of-success”self-efficacy (e.g. Wheeler, 1983). In the context of this model, the present study examined whether self-efficacy perceptions are predictive of adolescents’ leadership aspirations. It was also hypothesized that there would be significant sex and age differences in the three self-efficacy measures with reference to leadership. In social cognition, the methodology of the attribution theory has been a major vehicle in research, exploring the contents of cognitive schemata or the links between cognition and behaviour (e.g. Ross, 1977). Cognitive schemata, about specific events or concepts, are formed as a result of previous relevant learning or socialization experiences. They in turn serve to guide subsequent information processing and decision-making. With reference to the concept of leadership, an individual’s vocational socialization leads to the formation of a “leadership schema” (e.g. Calder, 1982; Pfeffer, 1977). This study was concerned with a specific aspect of the leadership schema, pertaining to an individual’s preconceptions about what makes an effective leader. It was assumed that adolescents’ preconceptions about leadership requirements (i.e. dispositional or situational factors) would be predictive of their leadership aspirations. Since leadership attributions also reflect an individual’s vocational socialization, it was further hypothesized that significant gender and age differences would be observed on the internal-dispositional vs. external-situational measures of leadership attributions. To sum, two general hypotheses were tested: Hypothesis I: there would be significant sex and age differences on the valence, self-efficacy and attribution measures with reference to leadership aspirations. Hypothesis 2: The variance in leadership aspiration ratings could be explained by the valence, selfefficacy and attribution measures. These hypotheses were derived from the differential vocational socialization theories (i.e. Brief, Van Sell and Aldag, 1979; Hackett and Betz, 1981), which do not assert the specific directions of possible gender and age differences. The hypotheses, therefore, were stated in general terms.

METHOD

The subject sample consisted of 52 fourth formers (25 males and 27 females) and 78 seventh formers (41 males and 37 females) at Aranui High School in Christchurch. The mean ages for the fourth and seventh formers were 14 years 3 months and 17 years 9 months, respectively. These two samples were chosen as the former represented the youngest adolescent group, from a pilot testing, who could thoroughly comprehend the instruc-

146

M. SINGER

tions given; and the latter constituted school before entering university.

adolescents

in their final year at high

Questionnaire A leadership aspirations questionnaire was devised for this study to assess (a) overall leadership aspirations, (b) the instrumentality-valence expectancies of leadership outcomes, (c) the self-efficacy expectancies, and (d) attributions of leadership requirements. Overall leadership aspirations were assessed by the item: “How much would you like to be in a leadership position?“. Subjects’ responses were recorded on a 7-point rating scale (1 = not at all; 4 = moderately; 7 = very much). An independent group of eight postgraduate students in organizational psychology were asked to think of the possible outcomes of being in a leadership position. These students were familiar with the psychological literature on leadership. Mitchell (1980) has reviewed studies on the most appropriate number of outcomes to use in applying the valence model to predict occupational preference. It was concluded that the best research results would be obtained by using between 10 to 15 outcomes (p. 301). In this study, 13 outcomes were generated (see Table 2). Subjects were required to go through each outcome twice to make two ratings : (a) the instrumentality rating, “How likely will the leadership position be in helping you to obtain each of the following outcomes?” and (b) the valence rating, “How desirable is each of the following outcomes to you as a person?” Perceived valence was measured by “desirability” because several studies have shown that when valence is measured by “desirability” rather than “importance”, better predictions were observed (e.g. Connolly, 1976; Schwab, Olian-Gottlieb and Heneman, 1979). Three items measured self-efficacy expectancies: (a) the “effectiveness” self-efficacy rating, “If you were in a leadership position, how effective would you be as a leader?“, (b) the “ability-match” self-efficacy rating, “How well does your own ability fit requirements for leadership position?“, and (c) the “ease-of-success” self-efficacy rating, “How easy would it be for you to succeed in a leadership position?“. These items were used in earlier occupational decision research (e.g. Wheeler, 1983). The attributions of leadership requirements were assessed by six factors: “the personality traits of the leader”, “the intelligence of the leader”, “the competence of the leader” (the three dispositional factors), “the support from subordinates”, “favourable organizational characteristics” and “factors beyond one’s control such as luck” (the three situational factors). The three

ADOLESCENTS’

ASPIRATIONS

TO LEADERSHIP

147

dispositional factors were selected as they represent the major dimensions of leader attributes conceptualized in current leadership theories (e.g. Fiedler’s leadership 1986 cognitive resources theory; Bass’ 1985 transformational theory). The two situational factors of “subordinate support” and “favourable organizational characteristics” were identified as the situational controls in the contingency model of leadership (Fiedler, 1978). “Factors beyond one’s control” is one of the most frequently used dimensions of external-situational variables in causal attribution research (e.g. Weiner, 1979). Subjects were required to rate each of the six factors according to their own views on “the importance of each of the factors in making a person an effective leader”. A 7-point rating scale was used (1 = not at all important, 7 = extremely important).

PROCEDURE

The subjects were presented with the questionnaire in the classroom by their own teachers. Subjects were given written instructions : This questionnaire concerns your views of being in a leadership position in a work place. A leadership position essentially involves taking charge of subordinates, making policy decisions and performing other administrative duties. Individuals differ in their views about leadership in general as well as in their own preferences for being in such positions. We are interested in your ozcn views on such issues. We would be grateful if you would go through the following 7-point rating scales and mark the number (l-7) whichyozl feel best described your ozvn views. Thank you for your assistance.

The questionnaire took between 5 to 10 minutes to complete. Subjects were only required to state their sex and age. The face validity of the questionnaire was high and the content was of interest to the respondents.

RESULTS The mean ratings and standard deviations on all the variables by subject sex

and age are presented in Table 1. The first hypothesis, concerning sex and age differences on all measures, was tested by the analysis of variance technique. A 2 (sex) X 2 (age) ANOVA was carried out on the overall leadership aspirations ratings. None of the sex main effect, F(1, 124) =0*04; age main effect F( 1, 124) = 1.28; or the sex X age interaction effect, F( 1, 124) = 0.18 was found to be significant. A similar 2 (sex) X 2 (age) ANOVA was also performed on the valence scores. A significant sex main effect was found, F( 1, 118) = 7.43, p < 0.01. Further t-tests indicated that the seventh form

(1.36) (1.25) (1.17) (0.87)

5.27 5.19

(1.47)

(1.17) (104.55)

4.88 4.32

4.92

5.24 347.73

formers

JIenn mtiugs

Fourth

1. Males

077 all

Standard deviation values in parenthews. *Significant difference from opposite sex seventh form sample (p < 0.01). *I* Significant age differences from same sex fourth form sample (p < 0.05).

“Ability-match” self-efficacy “Ease-of-success” self-efficacy Attributions of leadership requirements: Internal attributions External attributions

Leadership self-efficacy ratings: “Effectiveness” self-efficacy

Overall leadership aspiration rating Leadership valence score (I- = C 1 .I*)

Table

5.93 4.87

5.08 4.95

5.33

5.40 341.97

Seventh

b\, sex

(0.82)** (1.11)

(1.25) (1.20)4”

(1.21)

(1.26) (91.71)

formers

wl-iubles a77tl

5.56 5.21

5.07 4.93

5.62

5.08 386.04

Fourth

rrgc~

(0.99) (l+h)

(1.44) (1.49)

(1.06)

(1.38) (100.09)

former-s

Females

(0.59)“* (1.27)

(1’20)

5’08 6.10 4.87

(1.29)

(1.30)

(1.24) (115.51)*

formers

5.22

5.53

5.43 401.14

Seventh

g

:

z

z

ADOLESCENTS’

ASPIRATIONS

TO LEADERSHIP

149

females had significantly higher valence scores (401.14) than their seventh form male counterparts (341.94), t(72) = 2.45, p < 0.01. Neither the age 118) = 0.07; nor the sex X age interaction, main effect, F(1, F(l, 118) = 0.29 was significant. The individual valence scores associated with each of the 13 leadership outcomes are presented in Table 2. For the three self-efficacy measures, a 2 (sex) X 2 (age) X 3 (self-efficacies) MANOVA was carried out. None of the sex main effect, F(3, 120) = 2.29; the age main effect, F(3, 120) =0*91; or the interaction, F(3, 120) = 1.30 was found significant. None of the univariate F statistics was significant. However, further t-tests showed that seventh form males had a significantly higher “ease-of-success” self-efficacy rating (4.95) than fourth form males (4.32), t(63) = 2.03, p < 0.05. A 2 (sex) X 2 (age) X 2 (attributions) MANOVA was performed on the internal and external attribution measures. The age main effect was significant, F(2, 121) = 11.11, p < 0.01. Univariate F statistics indicated that this significant effect was associated with the measure of internal attributions, F( 1, 122) = 13.41 ,p < 0.01. Further t-tests revealed that seventh form males perceived internal attributions as significantly more important (5.93) than fourth form males (5.27), t(63) = 2.66, p < 0.01. The same age difference was found with the female sample; seventh form females also perceived internal attributions as a significantly more important factor in determining effective leadership than fourth form females (the means were 6.10 vs. 5.56); t(62) = 2.74, p < 0.01. Neither the MANOVA sex main effect F(2, 121) = 0.91; nor the sex X age interaction, F(2, 121) = 0.02 was found to be significant. None of the univariate statistics was significant. To test the second hypothesis concerning the relative contributions of valence, self-efficacy, and attribution ratings in determining overall leadership aspirations, a regression analysis was carried out on the four subgroups separately (this is because a number of significant sex and age effects were observed from the ANOVA results on ratings of the valence scores, selfefficacy and attribution ratings). For fourth form males, R2 = 0.39; F(6, 15) = 4.98, p < 0.01. A significant P-weight was found for the selfefficacy measure of “ease-of-success” (p = 0-43,~ < O-01). For seventh form males, R” = 0.57, F(6, 31) = 6.71, p < 0.01. Leadership valence scores yielded a significant P-weight (p = 0,35, p < 0.05). For fourth form females R2 = 0.82, F(6, 16) = 11.95, p < 0.01. “Ease-of-success” self-efficacy had a significant P-weight (/3= 0.88, p < 0.01). For seventh form females, RZ = 0.69, F(6, 26) = 9.76, p < 0.01. Significant P-weights were associated with “ability-match” self-efficacy (/3= O-60, p < 0.01) and internal attributionratings (p = 0.33,~ < 0.01). N one of the otherp-weights was found to be significant. These regression results are presented in Table 4. The intercorrelations are presented in Table 3,

Standard deviation values in parentheses. * Significant age difference from same sex fourth form sample (p < 0.05). **Significant sex differences from opposite sex seventh form sample (/I c 0~05).

(13.95) (13.57) (11.14) (14.28) (11.12) (12.86) (13.39) (13.97) (16.30) (12.92) (12.87) (10.84)

30.68 27.80 24.28 26.29 2654 29.48 31.96 27.84 26.16 32.96 21.28 21.08

Males

rderlre

Having higher salary In position of power and authority Able to reward or punish subordinates Able to influence decision-making Chance to assume administrative responsibilities Chance to realize own ambitions Chance to learn new things Chance to exercise own leadership style Contacts with high status people Not having to report to a superior Having personal challenge and stimulation Having more contacts with subordinates

of Irdrrship

former-s

,\l~rrr~ scorrs

Fourth

2.

Outcomes

Table

37.05 26.95 20.24 26.10 23.78 34.08 31.51 28.30 23.30 24.13 18.65 20.05

(9.87)’ (11.34) (14.51) (14.37) (13.08) (10.93) (13.18) (12.12) (13.76) (15.27)” (14.33) (9.82)

formers 30.85 28~15 24.48 29.11 27.56 33.26 36.89 31.63 27.78 29.26 22.37 25.62

Fourth

formers (11.89) (11.83) (11.22) (9.96) (11.99) (13.93) (14.40) (11.59) (14.67) (12.48) (13.24) (11.72)

= C I .I7 jbf- cnch mrtcwne

Seventh

(IL

33.24 28.24 19.51 31.54 30.67 35.97 38.33 35.22 28.25 28.08 23.86 28.00

Females Seventh

(12.43) (11.92) (14.99) (10.69) (11.97)“” (10.26) (10.03)“* (11.6~5)~” (13.82) (13.88) (13.67) (11.56)“”

formers

g z ;r: $ w

ADOLESCENTS’

, : ; 0

5 f ; 5 i * : :

ASPIRATIONS

TO

LEADERSHIP

15

152

M.

Table 4.

Multiple

regression

SINGER

zuith ‘overall leadership dependent variable

aspiration

ratings”

as the

/?-weights 1Males Females Fourth Seventh Fourth Seventh formers formers formers formers Leadership valence (V,) “Effectiveness” self-efficacy “Ability-match” self-efficacy “Ease-of-success” self-efficacy Internal attributions of leadership requirement External attributions of leadership requirement

0.32 0.02 -0.21 0.43”” 0.05

0.35” 0.44 -0.41 0.29 0.23

-0.14

-0.11

0.11 0.07 -0.17 l tO~88”” -0.11 0.19

0.24 -0.02 o.t50** -0.09 0.33”” -0.04

*‘p < 0.05. ““$3 < 0.01.

DISCUSSION

The first hypothesis in all measures

that there would be significant

found

partial

results on overall leadership had a significant

support

aspiration

main effect.

age and gender differences

from the present

data.

The

ratings showed that neither

This indicates

that, regardless

ANOVA age nor sex

of age and sex, all

adolescents sampled in this study had a similar level of aspiration to positions of leadership. In other words, all the fourth and seventh formers had an equally showed

strong desire to be leaders. that female

teenagers

Regarding

the valance measure,

had significantly

higher

valence

the results scores

than

their male counterparts. This suggests that the former attached a greater value or significance to being in leadership positions. In view of the fact that females

are in general

professions 1981),

under-represented

and in leading

the present

management

in traditionally positions

(e.g.

male Betz

dominated

and Hackett,

finding

domination hypothesis” place greater importance

could be interpreted in terms of the “frustration(Maslow, 1970), which postulates that individuals on needs that are unfulfilled than on satisfied needs.

Results on individual valence scores associated with each of the 13 leadership outcomes are also worth noting (see Table 2). The four groups gave the highest valence score to three different outcomes: for fourth form males, “not having to report salary”; for both

to a superior”; for seventh form fourth and seventh form females,

males, “having higher “chance to learn new

things”. The lowest valence scores were associated with the following outcomes: for fourth form males, “having personal challenge and stimulation”; for seventh form females, “able to reward and punish subordinates”; for both

ADOLESCENTS’

ASPIRATIONS

TO

LEADERSHIP

153

fourth form females and seventh form males, “having public exposure and recognition”. The four groups therefore attached a different pattern of values to the various leadership outcomes. With reference to the three self-efficacy measures, results showed that all the four groups had similar “effectiveness” and “ability-match” self-efficacy expectancies. This suggests that, irrespective of sex and age, all adolescents sampled believed that they would be equally effective in leadership positions and that their own abilities would match the requirements of leadership to a similar extent. However, seventh form males had a significantly higher “easeof-success” self-efficacy rating than fourth form males. This indicates that the former had greater confidence in their chances of being successful as leaders. Theoretically, the pattern of results observed on the three self-efficacy measures points to the independence of the three components as well as the multiplicity of the self-efficacy construct. In this regard, the findings are consistent with those of Wheeler (1983). Significant age main effect was found on attribution ratings. For both sexes, seventh formers perceived internal attributions as a more important leadership factor than fourth formers. This age effect means that the former placed greater importance on dispositional factors such as intelligence, personality and competence as determinants of effective leadership. The four subject groups placed equal importance on external factors and leadership requirements. The regression analyses revealed a different pattern of P-weights for the four groups. For fourth formers, “ease-of-success” self-efficacy contributed significantly to the variance of leadership aspirations ratings. For seventh form males, the valence score had a significant P-weight; whereas “abilitymatch” self-efficacy and “internal attributions” ratings made significant contributions to the total variance of leadership aspirations ratings for the seventh form female sample. This indicates that the four groups of subjects had different reasons for wanting to be in leadership positions. For the younger adolescents, “ease-of-success” was the primary consideration in their decision-making concerning leadership positions. For the seventh form males, the valence they attached to various leadership outcomes was the key determinant of their leadership aspirations. For the females, the key determinants were their perceptions of “ability-match” and internal leadership attributions. In other words, the more they believed their abilities fitted the requirements of leadership and the greater importance they placed on dispositional determinants, the more likely they would wish to be leaders. In terms of the relative contributions of the valence and self-efficacy models in predicting adolescents’ leadership aspirations, each type of expectancy made a significant and independent contribution in explaining aspiration ratings for the four subject samples. This result is consistent with that of

154

M. SINGER

Wheeler (1983). The valence model was compared directly with the selfefficacy model in predicting career choices among 17 occupations. Wheeler concluded that to fully understand occupational choice behaviour both models need to be included in the research design (p. 78). In this study, the finding that neither model alone was sufficient to account for the leadership aspirational differences among young adolescents could be seen as further support to Wheeler’s claim. The study has a number of limitations. The single item measure of overall leadership aspirations weakens the reliability of the data. The use of a set of a priori leadership outcomes and requirements in the valence and attribution measures would restrict the generalizability of these measures. Despite these weaknesses, the present study represents an initial attempt to investigate the underlying mechanisms of young adolescents’ vocational decision-making concerning leadership positions. Future research could apply this methodology in assessing first, the relevance of these findings to samples of organizational employees; and second, the developmental processes of gender differences in leadership aspirations.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author thanks Mr Chris Hooker and the teachers at Aranui High School for their assistance in data collection. Thanks are also due to Wendy Searle and Emma Brinded for data coding and analysis. This project was supported by a research assistance grant from Canterbury University to the author.

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