4
Med. Sci. Law (1991 ) Vol. 31, No. 1
Children's Memories for Stressful And Non-stressful Events KIM OATES, MD MHP FRACMA FRACP FRCP DCH Professor University down
of Paediatrics & Child Health, of Sydney; and: The Division
Department of Medicine,
of Paediatrics & Child Health, The The Children's Hospital, Camper-
SANDRA SHRIMPTON, BA GDACP Research
Psychologist,
Department
of Paediatrics
This work was supported in part by a seeding grant from the National Health and Medical Research Council of Austmlia ABSTRACT T w o groups of children aged b e t w e e n 4 and 12 y e a r s w e r e studied to look at t h e effect of stress, t i m e and type of questioning on memory One group comprised 17 children h a v i n g a blood s a m p l e t a k e n a s part of their medical care. T h e other group of 24 children w e r e studied after reacting with a friendly s t r a n g e r a t their school. Memory w a s tested either four to t e n days after t h e e v e n t or after t h r e e to six w e e k s . M e m o r y w a s a s s e s s e d by free recall, by questioning w i t h cues, by structured questions, by leading or mis l e a d i n g questions and by a s k i n g the children to identify t h e blood-collection technician or friendly s t r a n g e r from a photographic line-up. There w a s no difference b e t w e e n m e m o r y for t h e stressful or nonstressful events. T h e older children performed better in free recall although what t h e younger children did recall w a s highly accurate. The use of cues facilitated recall in all age groups. Children aged four to six y e a r s were less accurate t h a n t h o s e aged s e v e n to 12 y e a r s w h e n objective questioning w a s used. Errors w e r e m o r e likely to be errors of o m i s s i o n t h a n of c o m m i s s i o n in all a g e groups. M e m o r y w a s less ac curate after the longer t i m e interval. With increasing i n t e r e s t in t h e reliability of children a s w i t n e s s e s , m e t h o d s n e e d to be found which will enable the child w i t n e s s to g i v e t h e m a x i m u m a m o u n t of accurate information. Those likely to be working with the child w i t n e s s n e e d to develop skills in t a l k i n g with y o u n g children.
INTRODUCTION T h e r e is i n c r e a s e d i n t e r e s t in t h e reliability of c h i l d r e n a s w i t n e s s e s . S u r v e y s of a d u l t s h a v e
and Child Health,
The University
of
Sydney
s h o w n t h a t t h e y t e n d to v i e w children a s being less c r e d i b l e w i t n e s s e s t h a n a d u l t s ( S h e e h y a n d C h a p m a n , 1982; S c w a r t z - K e n n e y e t al., 1990). T h e r e s e e m s to b e a widely h e l d view t h a t t h e i m m a t u r i t y of c h i l d r e n l i m i t s t h e i r c o m p e t e n c e a n d reliability. It w a s n o t long ago t h a t w o m e n w e r e also t h o u g h t to be u n r e l i a b l e a s s h o w n by t h i s s t a t e m e n t m a d e a t t h e Old Bailey in 1976: 'It is well k n o w n t h a t w o m e n in p a r t i c u l a r , a n d s m a l l boys, a r e liable to be u n t r u t h f u l a n d i n v e n t s t o r i e s ' (Sutcliffe, 1976). As r e c e n t l y a s 1983 w h e n l a w s t u d e n t s , legal professionals a n d psychologists w e r e asked h o w t h e y t h o u g h t a c h i l d of a b o u t e i g h t y e a r s would a n s w e r q u e s t i o n s by police or in court, it w a s found t h a t m o r e t h a n h a l f t h e r e s p o n d e n t s in e a c h of t h e s e p r o f e s s i o n a l g r o u p s felt t h a t t h e child would not respond a c c u r a t e l y (Yarmey a n d J o n e s , 1983). In c o n t r a s t to t h e s e widely-held views, e v i d e n c e i s e m e r g i n g t h a t c h i l d r e n from a s y o u n g a s six y e a r s a r e often n o m o r e likely t h a n a d u l t s to confuse r e a l a n d i m a g i n e d e v e n t s ( J o h n s o n a n d Foley, 1984). H o w e v e r a p r o b l e m with most m e m o r y studies in children is t h a t t h e y r e c o r d c h i l d r e n ' s m e m o r i e s for e v e n t s w h i c h a r e s h o w n t o t h e m on slides, in films or told a s stories. T h e child is n o t actively involved in t h e s e e v e n t s b u t is a n e u t r a l b y s t a n d e r . E v e n w h e n s t u d i e s h a v e involved e v e n t s in which t h e c h i l d r e n a r e involved, t h e u t i l i z a t i o n of a w i t n e s s e d e v e n t w h i c h h a s b e e n s t r e s s f u l to t h e child is r a r e . An e x c e p t i o n is a s t u d y by
Oates and Shrimpton: Children's Memories
5
Table I. M e a n n u m b e r of children's r e s p o n s e s to i m p r o m p t u free recall question by age, t y p e of e v e n t and t i m e interval A g e range Group
Interval One (4 t o 10 d a y s ) Correct Incorrect Don't know
Interval T w o (3 to 6 w e e k s ) Correct Incorrect Don't know
4yrsto6yrs
7yrsto9yrs
10yrstol2yrs
Experimental (n=3)
Comparison (n=3)
Experimental (n=6)
Comparison (n=5)
2.67 — —
1.33 — —
3.83 — —
3.60 0.20 —
— — —
5.40 0.20 —
Experimental (n=4)
Comparison (n=2)
Experimental (n=l)
Comparison (n=5)
Experimental (n=3)
Comparison (n=4)
1 50 0 50 —
4.00 — —
7.00 1.00 —
4.40 — —
9.38 — —
4.50 1.00 —
S c h w a r t z - K e n n e y et al. (1990) w h i c h looked a t children's m e m o r i e s of their o w n i m m u n i z a t i o n procedure. This study showed t h a t a high p r o p o r t i o n of c h i l d r e n from a s y o u n g a s t h r e e y e a r s could recall details of t h e inoculation pro cedure and that those children who had the g r e a t e s t a m o u n t of s t r e s s d u r i n g t h e injection were t h e ones who recalled most about t h e event. C h i l d r e n m a y be w i t n e s s e s to e v e n t s in w h i c h t h e y a r e involved, s u c h a s a s s a u l t s or a c c i d e n t s , a n d t h e y m a y b e a s k e d to give e v i d e n c e . In t h e c a s e of child a b u s e , t h e child a n d t h e a l l e g e d p e r p e t r a t o r a r e often t h e only w i t n e s s e s to t h e event. It is therefore i m p o r t a n t to l e a r n h o w r e l i a b l e c h i l d r e n a r e in r e c a l l i n g e v e n t s in w h i c h t h e y w e r e involved. To o b t a i n m o r e i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e m e m o r y of c h i l d r e n of different a g e s for e v e n t s in w h i c h t h e y a r e involved a n d t o c o m p a r e m e m o r y for stressful a n d non-stressful e v e n t s , w e s t u d i e d c h i l d r e n h a v i n g blood s a m p l e s taken a n d compared t h e m with children react i n g w i t h a friendly s t r a n g e r a t t h e i r school. METHOD W e s t u d i e d t w o g r o u p s of c h i l d r e n : a n ex p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p w h o w e r e h a v i n g a stressful procedure and a comparison group, who were n o t h a v i n g a stressful p r o c e d u r e .
Experimental
Med. Sci. Law (1991 ) Vol. 31, No. 1
Children's Memories for Stressful And Non-stressful Events KIM OATES, MD MHP FRACMA FRACP FRCP DCH Professor University down
of Paediatrics & Child Health, of Sydney; and: The Division
Department of Medicine,
of Paediatrics & Child Health, The The Children's Hospital, Camper-
SANDRA SHRIMPTON, BA GDACP Research
Psychologist,
Department
of Paediatrics
This work was supported in part by a seeding grant from the National Health and Medical Research Council of Austmlia ABSTRACT T w o groups of children aged b e t w e e n 4 and 12 y e a r s w e r e studied to look at t h e effect of stress, t i m e and type of questioning on memory One group comprised 17 children h a v i n g a blood s a m p l e t a k e n a s part of their medical care. T h e other group of 24 children w e r e studied after reacting with a friendly s t r a n g e r a t their school. Memory w a s tested either four to t e n days after t h e e v e n t or after t h r e e to six w e e k s . M e m o r y w a s a s s e s s e d by free recall, by questioning w i t h cues, by structured questions, by leading or mis l e a d i n g questions and by a s k i n g the children to identify t h e blood-collection technician or friendly s t r a n g e r from a photographic line-up. There w a s no difference b e t w e e n m e m o r y for t h e stressful or nonstressful events. T h e older children performed better in free recall although what t h e younger children did recall w a s highly accurate. The use of cues facilitated recall in all age groups. Children aged four to six y e a r s were less accurate t h a n t h o s e aged s e v e n to 12 y e a r s w h e n objective questioning w a s used. Errors w e r e m o r e likely to be errors of o m i s s i o n t h a n of c o m m i s s i o n in all a g e groups. M e m o r y w a s less ac curate after the longer t i m e interval. With increasing i n t e r e s t in t h e reliability of children a s w i t n e s s e s , m e t h o d s n e e d to be found which will enable the child w i t n e s s to g i v e t h e m a x i m u m a m o u n t of accurate information. Those likely to be working with the child w i t n e s s n e e d to develop skills in t a l k i n g with y o u n g children.
INTRODUCTION T h e r e is i n c r e a s e d i n t e r e s t in t h e reliability of c h i l d r e n a s w i t n e s s e s . S u r v e y s of a d u l t s h a v e
and Child Health,
The University
of
Sydney
s h o w n t h a t t h e y t e n d to v i e w children a s being less c r e d i b l e w i t n e s s e s t h a n a d u l t s ( S h e e h y a n d C h a p m a n , 1982; S c w a r t z - K e n n e y e t al., 1990). T h e r e s e e m s to b e a widely h e l d view t h a t t h e i m m a t u r i t y of c h i l d r e n l i m i t s t h e i r c o m p e t e n c e a n d reliability. It w a s n o t long ago t h a t w o m e n w e r e also t h o u g h t to be u n r e l i a b l e a s s h o w n by t h i s s t a t e m e n t m a d e a t t h e Old Bailey in 1976: 'It is well k n o w n t h a t w o m e n in p a r t i c u l a r , a n d s m a l l boys, a r e liable to be u n t r u t h f u l a n d i n v e n t s t o r i e s ' (Sutcliffe, 1976). As r e c e n t l y a s 1983 w h e n l a w s t u d e n t s , legal professionals a n d psychologists w e r e asked h o w t h e y t h o u g h t a c h i l d of a b o u t e i g h t y e a r s would a n s w e r q u e s t i o n s by police or in court, it w a s found t h a t m o r e t h a n h a l f t h e r e s p o n d e n t s in e a c h of t h e s e p r o f e s s i o n a l g r o u p s felt t h a t t h e child would not respond a c c u r a t e l y (Yarmey a n d J o n e s , 1983). In c o n t r a s t to t h e s e widely-held views, e v i d e n c e i s e m e r g i n g t h a t c h i l d r e n from a s y o u n g a s six y e a r s a r e often n o m o r e likely t h a n a d u l t s to confuse r e a l a n d i m a g i n e d e v e n t s ( J o h n s o n a n d Foley, 1984). H o w e v e r a p r o b l e m with most m e m o r y studies in children is t h a t t h e y r e c o r d c h i l d r e n ' s m e m o r i e s for e v e n t s w h i c h a r e s h o w n t o t h e m on slides, in films or told a s stories. T h e child is n o t actively involved in t h e s e e v e n t s b u t is a n e u t r a l b y s t a n d e r . E v e n w h e n s t u d i e s h a v e involved e v e n t s in which t h e c h i l d r e n a r e involved, t h e u t i l i z a t i o n of a w i t n e s s e d e v e n t w h i c h h a s b e e n s t r e s s f u l to t h e child is r a r e . An e x c e p t i o n is a s t u d y by
Oates and Shrimpton: Children's Memories
5
Table I. M e a n n u m b e r of children's r e s p o n s e s to i m p r o m p t u free recall question by age, t y p e of e v e n t and t i m e interval A g e range Group
Interval One (4 t o 10 d a y s ) Correct Incorrect Don't know
Interval T w o (3 to 6 w e e k s ) Correct Incorrect Don't know
4yrsto6yrs
7yrsto9yrs
10yrstol2yrs
Experimental (n=3)
Comparison (n=3)
Experimental (n=6)
Comparison (n=5)
2.67 — —
1.33 — —
3.83 — —
3.60 0.20 —
— — —
5.40 0.20 —
Experimental (n=4)
Comparison (n=2)
Experimental (n=l)
Comparison (n=5)
Experimental (n=3)
Comparison (n=4)
1 50 0 50 —
4.00 — —
7.00 1.00 —
4.40 — —
9.38 — —
4.50 1.00 —
S c h w a r t z - K e n n e y et al. (1990) w h i c h looked a t children's m e m o r i e s of their o w n i m m u n i z a t i o n procedure. This study showed t h a t a high p r o p o r t i o n of c h i l d r e n from a s y o u n g a s t h r e e y e a r s could recall details of t h e inoculation pro cedure and that those children who had the g r e a t e s t a m o u n t of s t r e s s d u r i n g t h e injection were t h e ones who recalled most about t h e event. C h i l d r e n m a y be w i t n e s s e s to e v e n t s in w h i c h t h e y a r e involved, s u c h a s a s s a u l t s or a c c i d e n t s , a n d t h e y m a y b e a s k e d to give e v i d e n c e . In t h e c a s e of child a b u s e , t h e child a n d t h e a l l e g e d p e r p e t r a t o r a r e often t h e only w i t n e s s e s to t h e event. It is therefore i m p o r t a n t to l e a r n h o w r e l i a b l e c h i l d r e n a r e in r e c a l l i n g e v e n t s in w h i c h t h e y w e r e involved. To o b t a i n m o r e i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e m e m o r y of c h i l d r e n of different a g e s for e v e n t s in w h i c h t h e y a r e involved a n d t o c o m p a r e m e m o r y for stressful a n d non-stressful e v e n t s , w e s t u d i e d c h i l d r e n h a v i n g blood s a m p l e s taken a n d compared t h e m with children react i n g w i t h a friendly s t r a n g e r a t t h e i r school. METHOD W e s t u d i e d t w o g r o u p s of c h i l d r e n : a n ex p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p w h o w e r e h a v i n g a stressful procedure and a comparison group, who were n o t h a v i n g a stressful p r o c e d u r e .
Experimental
