PROFESSION AND SOCIETY

Career Cartography: A Conceptualization of Career Development to Advance Health and Policy Suzanne Feetham, PhD, RN, FAAN1 & Jennifer J. Doering, PhD, RN2 1 Lamda, Visiting Professor, University of Wisconsin Milwaukee, and Nursing Research Consultant, Children’s National Medical Center, Bethesda, MD, USA 2 Eta Nu, Associate Professor, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee College of Nursing, Milwaukee, WI, USA

Key words Nurse researcher, career planning, career development, mentoring Correspondence Dr. Suzanne Feetham, Nursing Research Consultant, Children’s National Medical Center, 7701 Glennon Drive, Bethesda MD 20817. E-mail: [email protected] Accepted: July 13, 2014 doi: 10.1111/jnu.12103

Abstract Purpose: The purpose of this article is to propose a conceptualization of career development that emphasizes the interdependence between research, practice, and policy. Organizing Construct: Career cartography applies three decades of career development experience to lay out a systematic, comprehensive, and iterative approach for planning and communicating the outcomes of science at any career stage. To inform practice and policy, nurse researchers must be clear on the intended destination and trajectory of the science, and be skilled in communicating that science and vision to diverse stakeholders. Career cartography builds on the science of cartography, is developed within the context of public and health policy, and is composed of several components, including a destination statement, career mapping, a supportive career cartography team, and use of communication and dissemination strategies. Conclusions: The successful utilization of career cartography may accelerate advancement of individual careers, scientific impact, and the discipline as a whole by guiding nurse researchers to be deliberative in career planning and to communicate successfully the outcomes of research across a wide variety of stakeholders. Career cartography provides a framework for planning a nurse researcher’s program of research and scholarship to advance science, policy, and health of the public. Clinical Relevance: Career cartography guides nurse researchers to realize their full potential to advance the health of the public and inform public and health policy in academic and practice environments.

The goal of nursing science is to advance knowledge, improve the health of the public, and improve the effectiveness, safety, and access to health care. Similarly, the career goal of an individual nurse researcher is to improve the health of the public by advancing knowledge and nursing science. To meet this goal, nurse researchers need to be clear on the direction, trajectory, and expected outcomes of a career. Building a successful career as a nurse researcher with an active program of research and scholarship is a complex process that requires many levels of planning and strategic decision making. Likewise, communicating science with effective, actionable messages

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requires development over time. While there is literature on improving scholarly productivity within the context of faculty roles (Nies & Troutman-Jordan, 2012; Wills & Kaiser, 2002), and some guidance on using concept mapping to facilitate progress and advancement on the tenure-track (Ratchneewan & Dzurec, 2010), there is little guidance on how to plan and communicate programs of research and scholarship. There is even less guidance for nurse researchers in academic and nonacademic roles to incorporate knowledge and trends within health and public policy into career planning and communication. More importantly, there is a lack of practical guidance

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to advance systematically that program of research and scholarship over a career. The purpose of this article is to address these gaps by proposing career cartography, a conceptualization of career development that emphasizes the interdependence between research, practice, and policy. The title of a career development book, If You Don’t Know Where You’re Going, You’ll Probably End Up Somewhere Else (Campbell, 2007), aptly captures an important issue many nurse researchers face throughout a career. Some nurse researchers mistakenly believe that it is enough to be able to describe science primarily for the next grant proposal or current study. Such a narrow view is insufficient to establish or advance a program of research and scholarship that will generate the quality, quantity, and rate of sustained change that is needed in this era of rapidly developing science, emerging technologies, complexity of healthcare systems, and limited funding sources. The skill of communicating a program of research and scholarship in any venue and to a wide variety of stakeholders has a utility that cannot be overstated. Likewise, clarity in the purpose of science also enables researchers to be alert to science and public policy that may affect the availability of resources and the political will to conduct research (Feetham, 2011; Feetham & Meister, 1999). Attention to political will is important as it “includes the hopes, concerns, willingness to act, and aspirations of many groups including citizens, taxpayers, community leaders, as well as policy makers” (Feetham & Meister, 1999, p. 252). The lack of political will can significantly impede programs of research when, for example, there are changes in funding for a particular scientific area from public or private sources.

Career Cartography Cartography is the science of designing, drawing, and producing maps (Caquard & Cartwright, 2014; Crampton, 2001). The science of cartography describes maps as communication devices that enable the exploration, analysis, and visualization to understand patterns and constructs. Maps enable the evolution of multiple, contingent approaches to data and advance through several stages and visualizations (Crampton, 2001). Applying the science of cartography to careers, career cartography, then, is the science of designing, drawing, communicating, and producing a map to guide researchers toward their intended career destination. Career cartography consists of several components that can be applied to enable nurse researchers to examine their careers in the broadest terms, and at the same time facilitate the development of practical plans that detail how to move forward strategically. The compoJournal of Nursing Scholarship, 2015; 47:1, 70–77.  C 2014 Sigma Theta Tau International

Figure 1. Conceptualization of the career cartography process.

nents described here include a destination statement, career mapping, career cartography team, and communication and dissemination strategies. The components of career cartography can be used together to generate an integrated and systematic approach for advancing a career. Figure 1 illustrates the overall conceptualization of the career cartography components; however, actual career cartography maps are highly detailed and individualized to the researcher and the scientific area. Researchers can initiate career cartography any time in a career, but ideally as early as possible, no later than during graduate studies. The components of career cartography described in this article have been refined over decades by the first author in guiding doctoral students and nurse researchers in academic, service, and policy environments.

Components of Career Cartography The components of career cartography are described in the next subsections and provide guidance for nurse researchers at every career stage and professional setting to realize fully their potential to influence health outcomes, research, education, and health policy. Development and refinement of these components is iterative so that once drafted, work on the components ideally occurs concurrently. Each component contributes to a career development plan for sustained impact of science to improve the health of the public and inform policy.

Destination Statement The first component of career cartography is a statement for the destination and outcome of a career. A destination statement is a single sentence that captures the 71

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Table 1. Questions to Inform Destination Statement in Career Cartography by Addressing Context and Describing Impact Context of science • What are the significant health issues including incidence, cost, morbidity, and mortality? • What is the political and social will to address these health issues near-term, long-term? • How will this science inform policy to advance the health of the public? • How does the science align with the priorities of the institution (health system, university) county, state, region, and nation? Impact of Science • What are the unique contributions for health, education, and practice? • How does this science change health outcomes of the public and healthcare systems? • Does this research have the potential to be sustained long-term and scaled up? • What are outcomes of the science in comparison to county, state, and national data? Note. Adapted from Feetham & Meister (1999) and Feetham (2011).

cumulative outcome of a researcher’s long-term scientific career. In other words, the destination statement is the ultimate goal of all efforts to improve health, advance science, and influence policy over time. In developing this statement, asking the following question may be helpful: Having all the human, financial, and political capital in the world available that could solve a critical health problem, how would the world look different, or what would be better, over time, because of this career (Beck, 2001)? One example of a career destination statement is: To promote health equity in vulnerable mothers and infants by eliminating sleep-related infant death (Chlan & Buckwalter, 2014). Knowing the public, health, and science policy context of a career is consistent with the science of cartography. Maps developed with the knowledge of societal power relationships (i.e., policy) results in a stronger identification of the purpose of the map (Crampton, 2001). Knowledge of the policy context guides the development of the destination statement (Feetham, 2011). A well-intentioned program of research and scholarship that aligns with existing political will and describes advancing the health of the public enables the researcher to gain support from policy makers and potential funders. Lacking this knowledge and insight, the researcher may pursue a program of research that neither captures the political will for support nor has relevance or interest to the larger population. Addressing the policy context enables the researcher to position their scientific career to demonstrate the impact to address critical health issues to advance the health of the public and identify the best strategies for building policy capital with communities, health systems, policy makers, and funders. If nursing science is not directly aligned with the current policy context, the researcher’s career cartography will need to include strategies to inform policy makers as to how nursing science improves the health of the public and to generate the political will for nursing science. Additional questions that may guide nurse researchers to craft a destination statement are listed in Table 1. 72

Communicating the destination statement is just as important as creating the statement. For example, the statement can be made a rolling marquee as a screen saver stating, “I am committed to address the critical health challenge of reducing sleep-related infant death.” Prominently displaying destination statements can help researchers define priorities and demonstrate passion and energy for making a difference even when the challenges seem great. Destination statements are typically refined over time and function to enable the nurse researcher to begin mapping a strategy for reaching that destination, since, as noted by Campbell’s (2007) book title, If You Don’t Know Where You’re Going, You’ll Probably End Up Somewhere Else, career cartography is most useful if the destination is known.

Career Mapping The ability of researchers to map a scientific trajectory is foundational to career cartography. In the experience of the authors, mapping has demonstrated utility for helping many nurse researchers, scholars, and leaders describe and plan programs of research and scholarship. The literature on mapping in nursing and social sciences tends to center around concept mapping, which has been widely used for decades across disciplines (Anderson, Day, & Vandenberg, 2011; Hsu & Hsieh, 2005). While these publications describe useful applications of mapping, they do not incorporate the science of cartography. Applications of mapping are found in the areas of education (Chan, 2013; Hunter Revell, 2012), healthcare systems (Trochim & Kane, 2005), and strategic planning (Anderson et al., 2011) to name a few. Trochim and colleagues describe concept mapping as a standardized procedure for defining and clarifying a concept or process that is particularly useful in the early stages of describing the concept (Trochim, 1989; Trochim & Kane, 2005). This description supports the use of mapping for both emerging and established nurse researchers who are planning or evaluating programs of research and scholarship. Journal of Nursing Scholarship, 2015; 47:1, 70–77.  C 2014 Sigma Theta Tau International

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Furthermore, Ratchneewan and Dzurec (2010) describe the application of maps to a program of research and scholarship as supporting documents for promotion and tenure. Hinds and colleagues (in press) describe mapping as a process to reach a career legacy. What this literature does not describe is mapping’s use within the broader context of science and career development starting with a distinct destination statement of the expected long-term impact in the context of public, health, and science policy.

Career cartography: mapping guidelines. Like the land they represent, maps are dynamic; streets are built or moved, and rivers change course through erosion. Similarly, mapping a scientific career is an ongoing, iterative, and highly creative process. Through several iterations, progress, gaps, and evolving strategies are revealed. While each map depicts the key concepts and paths for development of programs of research and scholarship, there is neither a “right” map, nor are maps ever “finished.” Well-executed mapping provides longitudinal evidence of contributions and the deliberative process for the evolution of scientific careers. The ability to demonstrate sustained impact applies to annual reviews, promotion and tenure, applications for new positions, promotions across organizations, fellowships, and awards. The first action in career mapping is to place the destination statement as the goal of the map. Next, all outcomes resulting from the researcher’s past practice, research, and scholarship that inform the present research are identified. An analysis of the gaps in the science and policies that may affect reaching the intended destination is conducted. Findings from this analysis inform the projected studies, activities and strategies necessary to address the gaps. Delineating the path that bridges the gaps from research outcomes back to the destination is the crux of the mapping process and is the most challenging and labor intensive. Developing the content to populate this part of the map may be facilitated by first creating a table to document all past practice, activities, research, processes, and outcomes that inform the current research. This information is then transferred to the map in abbreviated form. Tables may contain, for example, a listing of methods, sample, and outcomes such as funding and publications of all completed research and scholarship. Transferring information from the table into an actual map is beneficial, because a visual illustration provides a clearer presentation of scientific direction and progress toward accomplishments for colleagues internal and external to the researcher’s discipline. Gaps in the science are identified from completed research as well as the researcher’s knowledge of the state of the science and policy. These Journal of Nursing Scholarship, 2015; 47:1, 70–77.  C 2014 Sigma Theta Tau International

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gaps become the basis for the next series of proposed studies and activities to advance toward the intended destination, which is placed both within the table and on the map. Mapping over time has benefits that include prioritizing and organizing research concepts and gaps in science. Mapping the patterns across ideas and concepts enables the researcher to plan the future sequence of studies, activities, and strategies, such as identifying needed team members, additional variables for study, clarifying concepts, and securing additional training. Through this analysis, potential barriers to reaching the nurse researcher’s career destination are identified and alternative strategies developed (Hsu & Hsieh, 2005). Sharing mapping drafts with persons skilled in visual representation is highly recommended for clarifying any inconsistencies in how the map represents the intended trajectory of a scientific career. Career cartography maps are revisited on a continuing basis as milestones toward a researcher’s destination are added to the map. The result is a clear and cumulative representation of a scientific trajectory demonstrating progression and outcomes toward the intended destination.

Career cartography: mapping variations. Several variations of career mapping may be useful in particular situations and venues. A map of the same geographical area can employ different views depending on whether the map is a topographical, climate, political, or road perspective (Crampton, 2001). Likewise, nurse researchers can illustrate the impact and direction of a scientific career by constructing maps from different perspectives such as concepts, populations, publications, policy, funding, or methods. Mapping primarily from the perspective of outcomes may enable researchers to pictorially demonstrate the impact that various aspects of their scholarship has generated over time. Career cartography maps depicting different aspects of a program of research can help uncover new perspectives and avenues for advancing a scientific career. For example, a map may demonstrate the evolution of concepts within a program of research. Mapping of concepts helps link various activities and aspects of a researcher’s program of research and scholarship into a coherent whole to make explicit connections that may not be obvious to someone unfamiliar with the scientific area. In another example, adding the science and health policy context to a map can guide nurse researchers to identify opportunities for support, potential challenges, and approaches to inform policy for sustained change. Career mapping can help nurse researchers identify the relevant stakeholders with whom to partner to create political will, advance innovative initiatives, or increase spheres of 73

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influence. Examples of public and health policy affecting programs of research and informing science policy include the Affordable Care Act (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2014) and the Patient-Centered Outcomes Research Institute (2014). Policies may influence a program of research, including budget appropriations for research, political will for nursing research, state funding for higher education, and public policy determining data access (Froese, Lloris, & Opitz, 2004). Clarity of the policy context assists the researcher to identify strategies to advance a program of research and scholarship that will result in sustained change (Feetham, 2011; Feetham & Meister, 1999).

Establishing a Supportive Career Cartography Team Supportive relationships are critical for the successful careers of nurse researchers in any environment. Supportive relationships include mentors, career coaches, sponsors, and professional environments with colleagues where discourse and a spirit of inquiry are encouraged (Hewlett, 2013; McBride, 2011). Although mentors are often thought to be used primarily at the beginning of a career, viewing mentorship as an “early and continuing” phenomenon is a more adaptive strategy for 21st century careers. Supportive mentoring relationships can take many forms. For example, mentors can be senior colleagues or peers. In addition to professional mentors, a researcher may also have religious leaders and family members whose mentorship may provide a unique perspective. A career coach is another type of mentor hired as an independent third party to challenge a researcher in new ways (McBride, 2011). Coaches can reinvigorate mid- and late-career researchers by refreshing destination statements and reprioritizing goals and the subsequent actions. Having supportive mentors of different types is advantageous to navigate career challenges and to support the nurse researcher in the day-to-day challenges of high-stress outcome-oriented positions, and for changing skill level and experience (Fleming et al., 2013). Mentors can be specific for a content area, methodology, or population, or have a policy focus. Mentors may be internal or external to the department or institution, and the types of mentors needed at a given career point changes with time (McBride, 2011; Perlmutter, 2008, 2013). Addressing the issues of gender is important in the mentoring process as opportunities and advancement can be affected by gender (Anonymous, 2012; Sonnert & Holton, 1995), and reinforcing the selection of mentors is a deliberate and mutual process 74

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(Eby, Allen, Evans, Ng, & Dubois, 2008). The mentoring relationship is modified over time as mentors encourage growth and independence, moving the mentee to be a self-supervisor (Wampler & Wampler, 2013). Employing available technology, mentorships can frequently be established and maintained without concern for geographical distance. In addition to mentors, having sponsors throughout a career is shown to be a significant factor for advancement (Hewlett, 2013; Shulte, 2013). Sponsors are individuals in positions to catalyze a researcher to opportunities, recommend seeking opportunities such as for study sections or elected office, and encouraging new positions in institutions or policy in state or federal agencies. Sponsors may clear career obstacles, make introductions, provide opportunities out of one’s comfort zone, and encourage taking visible risks. As sponsors hold positions of power, career-advancing opportunities may come from sponsors more than mentors (Hewlett, 2013). Because science is a team effort, sharing career cartography maps with mentors, sponsors, and other colleagues is recommended as gaps and alternatives in the proposed studies can be identified to meet the destination. A career cartography team can assist in identifying the needed research team members and areas of expertise over the long term rather than simply as the next study is proposed. Seeing the evolution of a scientific career over time can result in defining needed experiences and facilitate the planning to achieve them. Mentors, sponsors, and organization leaders can facilitate ascertaining the timing of career opportunities.

Communicating and Disseminating Science Traditional academic preparation includes skills for scholarly communication in refereed publications and presentations. To advance science in today’s environment where competition for resources is high, nurse researchers must be able to communicate effectively the significance and outcomes of nursing science to multiple stakeholders. Communication and dissemination strategies that apply the principles of translating science to the public and to policy makers are as important as the other career cartography components and are informed by those components. The purpose of disseminating research is to engage stakeholders to make more informed decisions. Communicating the significance and impact of research findings can contribute to developing political will for nursing research in general and for an individual program of research and scholarship (Feetham, 2011). Journal of Nursing Scholarship, 2015; 47:1, 70–77.  C 2014 Sigma Theta Tau International

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Although there is no one approach for all situations, there are consistent elements for creating successful communication and dissemination strategies, including clear objectives identifying stakeholders and forming key messages for each stakeholder. Communication and dissemination strategies are developed at the planning phase for the research. Key messages are based on the needs of the stakeholders and the state of the science (Clappison, 2012). To assure the clarity of messages requires applying known communication tools and resources (Table 2, available with online version of the article). Stakeholders look for a take-away message that includes actionable recommendations with an opportunity for continued dialogue. An evaluation plan is an important part of the strategy to monitor the effectiveness of research uptake and make adjustments to the strategy to include new scientific advances and respond to changes in political will for research. The research communication and dissemination strategy is a two-way process of engagement that can be responsive to stakeholder interests and result in increased demand for nursing science. One tangible example of a communication and dissemination tool is the elevator speech.

Communication and Dissemination Tool: The Elevator Speech As part of a broader strategy, the elevator speech is one tool to strengthen a nurse researcher’s ability to communicate science. The elevator speech is a skill long supported in the business and technology communities that can benefit nurse researchers. Since 1990, Massachusetts Institute of Technology has hosted a competition that awards $100,000 to the team of student entrepreneurs who produce the best 60-s video pitch of their product (see http://mit100k.org). The program boasts facilitating the birth of more than 160 companies of values in excess of $2.5 billion. An important component of today’s success in the business of science is being able to express ideas succinctly. Nurse researchers should be prepared to “pitch” their research and outcomes to anyone at any time in 60 s or less. Elevator speeches can be constructed for different aspects of a program of research. For example, a speech can be made from the results of a recent study, a destination statement, or next steps to advance a researcher’s career as revealed by mapping. Elevator speeches may be tailored to research, practice, or policy and for any stakeholders including administrators, policy makers, students, donors, the public and various types of media in settings from 1:1 to large groups. Mastering an effective elevator speech is a skill that takes practice

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and refinement. Steps to effective elevator speeches are detailed on several websites and publications (see Table 2, online). Communication and dissemination strategies are important to advance a nurse researcher’s ability to clearly communicate the outcomes of science to stakeholders inside and outside of nursing, health care, and academia.

Conclusions The career cartography process is applicable to nurse researchers at every career stage and in any professional environment. In this age of high-stakes science and scarce funding resources, learning how to conduct research or translate research findings to practice is not likely to be enough to make a sustained impact on the health of the public. Sustained impact is more likely when nurse researchers possess the skills to systematically plan, evaluate, communicate, and disseminate a program of research and scholarship across a career. Conducting a meaningful program of research requires knowing the public, science, and health policy that surrounds the science and determining the resources and political will to support nursing science. Through strategic ongoing attention to career development through the use of career cartography, nursing can better develop the nurse researcher leaders who are capable of making greater impacts on the health and well-being of the public in the 21st century. Each career cartography component, from the destination statement, career mapping, career cartography teams, and effective communication and dissemination of research, affects the outcomes of a nurse researcher’s career, including its impact on the individual researcher, and ultimately, the health of the public.

Acknowledgments Pam S. Hinds, PhD, RN, FAAN, for shared discussions and visions on career and legacy mapping. Jennifer Moore, PhD, RN, and Rachel Schiffman, PhD, RN, FAAN, for their thoughtful reviews and challenges to improve the manuscript. We also thank the students and faculty who participated in career cartography resulting in our improving the clarity of the concept and process.

Clinical Resources

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Agency for Healthcare Quality and Research, Dissemination Planning tool: http://www.ahrq.gov/ professionals/quality-patient-safety/patient-safety-

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resources/resources/advances-in-patientsafety/vol4/planningtool.html Northwest Missouri State University concept mapping tool: http://www.nwmissouri.edu/library/ courses/research/conceptMap.html

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Supporting Information Additional Supporting Information may be found in the online version of this article at the publisher’s web site: Table 2. Resources to Support the Career Cartography process.

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Career cartography: a conceptualization of career development to advance health and policy.

The purpose of this article is to propose a conceptualization of career development that emphasizes the interdependence between research, practice, an...
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