This article was downloaded by: [Van Pelt and Opie Library] On: 19 October 2014, At: 21:27 Publisher: Taylor & Francis Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK
Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/uawm16
Carbon Monoxide: A Danger to the Driver? a
Lewis W. Mayron & John J. Winterhalter
a
a
Environment Commission , Village of Skokie Skokie , Illinois , USA Published online: 13 Mar 2012.
To cite this article: Lewis W. Mayron & John J. Winterhalter (1976) Carbon Monoxide: A Danger to the Driver?, Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association, 26:11, 1085-1088, DOI: 10.1080/00022470.1976.10470365 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00022470.1976.10470365
PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the “Content”) contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinions and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors, and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content should not be relied upon and should be independently verified with primary sources of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising out of the use of the Content. This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http:// www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions
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Carbon Monoxide: A Danger To The Driver?
Lewis W. Mayron and John J. Winterhalter Environment Commission, Village of Skokie Skokie, Illinois
Peterson and Sabersky1 measured the concentrations of ozone, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxide, and oxides of nitrogen under standard driving conditions in the Southern California area. They indicate that in an automobile with no inside source of carbon monoxide (CO), the interior concentrations will reflect those on the outside but in a more
This work was performed under the auspices of the Environment Commission of Skokie, IL. Address correspondence to Dr. Mayron, 5437 Suffield Terrace, Skokie, IL 60076. He is Chairman of the Skokie Environment Commission. The other members are Belle Holman, George Sackheim, Dr. Morton Klein, Dr. Martin Hamer, Joseph Cablk, George Brabec, Dr. Jerome Gourse, Jack Silbert, Irving Pavey, and John Handzel. Mr. Winterhalter is Director of Practical Arts, Niles West High School, Oakton Street at Edens Expressway, Skokie, IL 60076.
November 1976
Volume 26, No. 11
gradual manner. They did not record the rapid variations and high peaks in the interior that they did when samplings were taken from the outside. They reported that 25 ppm of CO was not often exceeded and the highest concentration of CO encountered was 45 ppm for a period of 3 min. The current permissible air quality standards for CO are 35 ppm for a 1 hr average and 9 ppm for an 8 hr average (1.5% carboxyhemoglobin is produced in a normal man at this level). There are three major reasons for these standards: 1. There is evidence that concentrations of carboxyhemoglobin (COHb) in the range of 3-5% (in equilibrium with 18-32 ppm) may adversely affect the ability to detect small unpredictable changes in the environment. This vigilance effect has been specifically demonstrated for time-interval discrimination,2 tone-intensity discrimination,3-4 light-intensity discrimination,5-6 light-
duration discrimination,7 and tonalduration discrimination.8'9 It was pointed out that CO concentrations of 25-100 ppm for periods ranging from 1 to 8 hr did not slow reaction time.10 However, another reaction time experiment in which students drove through downtown Dayton, OH for 90 min revealed definitive differences in capillary blood oxygen levels, demonstrating lowered oxygen levels and longer reaction times;11 the subjects had been exposed to CO at an average of 36 ppm during their ride of 90 min duration. 2. It is claimed that concentrations of COHb as low as 5% have been shown to decrease the maximal oxygen consumption during exercise in healthy young males.12 However, examination of these data leaves much to be desired at levels between 2 and 15% COHb, whereas it appears to have merit at levels between 15 and 31%. 3. Patients with cardiovascular disease will develop symptoms earlier while 1085
APCA NOTE-BOOK
Table I. CO levels in the automobile cab at idle and emissions test data.
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Exhaust gases—engine at idle
exercising when their COHb concentrations are raised above normal levels.13-16 Thus, relatively low levels of CO have been found to have physiological effects on humans. In terms of driving performance, the data are not very clear.17 However, Chovin18 analyzed blood samples from 1672 motor vehicle drivers who were thought to be responsible for accidents, 3818 samples from workers who were sometimes exposed to CO in their jobs, and 1518 samples from people who were suspected of having been exposed to domestic sources of CO. A cumulative distribution plot demonstrated that the automobile accident group had the highest CO blood levels, followed by the workers with CO exposure; the individuals with suspected home exposure had the lowest blood CO levels. However, there are still many unanswered questions regarding this study; therefore, conclusions must be held in abeyance. For example, if a driver is receiving his CO exposure from traffic, what is the effect of other pollutants that are present on his potential for having accidents. In addition, after studying the COHb levels of 237 individuals involved in traffic accidents, Clayton et al19 concluded that the CO level in the Detroit urban area does not appear to be related to impaired driving ability. However, this study also suffers from unanswered questions such as the level of CO in the automobile. We have been interested in several aspects of CO pollution, namely, ambient air levels and human health effects, levels inside an automobile and effects on driver performance. On the basis of current toxicity data, we attempted to deduce from CO levels at intersections, on busy streets and expressways, and in the cabs of automobiles, if there was a serious problem in terms of human health due to CO pollution. An ECOLYZER 2600 was made available for our use through the courtesy of Energetics Science, Inc. The portable instrument was used in 3 ways: 1) to measure CO levels on the inside of an idling automobile at the area of the driver's seat by extending an intake hose in through the left front window; 2) to measure CO levels in ventilating air entering the automobile by setting the CO analyzer on the floor of the right front portion of the interior, i.e., in front of the front passenger seat, and driving in various traffic conditions to determine the dependence, if any, of interior CO levels on traffic conditions; 3) to measure CO levels in the ambient air at busy traffic positions and intersections. 1086
Year of mfr. 68 70 72
AMC AMC AMC
67 67 70 73 73 73
Buick Buick Buick Buick Buick Buick Cadillac Cadillac Cadillac Chevrolet Chevrolet Chevrolet Chevrolet Chevrolet Chevrolet Chevrolet Chevrolet Chevrolet Chevrolet Chevrolet Datsun Datsun Dodge van Ford Ford Ford Ford Ford Ford Ford Ford Ford Ford Mercury Mercury Oldsmobile Oldsmobile Oldsmobile Oldsmobile Plymouth Plymouth Pontiac Renault Triumph Volkswagon Volkswagon Volkswagon Volkswagon
69 71 74 68 68 70 70 71 71 71 72 72 74 75 68 71 68 63 64 66 68 71 71 72 72 72 73 68 72 70 70 72 74 72 74 74 72 70 74 74 74 74 a
Mftr.
CO levels in passenger compartment (ppm) 5 6 2
100+ 3 2.5 2.5 8 2.5 3 2.5 7 7 8 3.5 2.5 18 4 4 15 13 3 3 4 3.5 28 70 6 10 6 2 22 4 6 3 12 5 4 13 2 4 1.5 3 4 7 12 — 5 3 5 2
CO
(ppm)a 10,000 40,000 20,000 37,500 25,000 40,000 52,500 15,000 2,500 5,000 12,000 4,000 45,000 50,000 65,000 2,500 20,000 25,000 42,500 18,000 15,000 3,000 10,000 60,000 75,000+ 40,000 50,000 50,000 30,000 45,000 7,000 47,500 2,000 22,000 3,000 15,000 70,000 2,000 15,000 4,000 2,500 13,000 70,000 8,000 5,000 75,000 4,500 35,000 4,000 70,000 30,000
Hydrocarbons (ppm) 120 650 195 150 300 450 220 90 100 50 200 95 375 300 300 100 190 100 400 170 200 100 190 500 650 450 300 320 150
2,000+ 110 180 500
2,000+ 95 140 350 25 150 90 100 215 320 110 100 900 375 220 100 300 200
A 10,000 ppm CO concentration is equivalent to 1% CO.
Results The measurement of interior CO levels was performed by a team of students and instructors in the automobile mechanics program at Niles West High School in Skokie, IL.* Residents of * The CO measuring team was comprised of teachers and students from the Auto Mechanics program, namely, Marcus Anderson and G. Larry Erickson, teachers, and Richard Rosenberg, William Meyer, Matt Vogel, Gary Unrath, Ron Rabinovitz, and Ray Stanko.
Skokie were invited to bring their automobiles to the High School to be tested. No smoking was permitted while the samples were being taken. In addition, CO and hydrocarbons were determined in the exhaust emissions at the normal idle of the car by standard instrumentation (Sun Electric Co., Exhaust Emission Unit, Model #U-912). The results obtained from this survey are illustrated in Table I. Note that
Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association
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there is no correlation between the CO levels in the exhaust and in the car interiors. The interior of a 1967 Buick registered at the top of the meter scale, which was in excess of 100 ppm, but was well within the CO emission limits for that vintage (37,500 ppm); and a 1963 Ford registered 70 ppm in its cab but 50,000 ppm in its exhaust gas, still within the standard. Others were as shown, including 28 ppm for a 1968 Dodge van and 22 ppm for a 1971 Ford. Thus, 51 cars were tested for interior CO levels and 2 of them had levels far in excess of those found in the other cars. Whether these levels are safe is doubtful, but whether a significant effect can be demonstrated on the drivers of the cars would depend upon how much time each driver spends in his car, either at any one time or cumulatively. If the cars are used only for around the neighborhood driving, which might involve 10 min/trip, then no problems may be noticed. However, a long drive of several hours would be extremely dangerous, not only to the occupants of the car but also to the other party in the consequent accident. Nine other cars exceeeded the 8 hr standard of 9 ppm; these are of concern but they would be relatively less dangerous than the 2 that were at 70 and over 100 ppm. If there is a serious exhaust leak to the interior of a car, then other noxious agents from the exhaust are also entering the car. The effects from nitrogen dioxide include destruction by oxidation of some of the lipid components of the lungs,20 resulting in lowered oxygen uptake by the lungs and consequent increased respiratory rate,21-22 and destruction of the lung macrophages,23 which result in decreased resistance to lung infections.21'24'25 Thus, the combined effects of these emissions must be considered in either exhaust leaks or high-density traffic pollution. In particular makes of cars, the operating manuals imply only recirculation of internal air when the air conditioning is on in full. In the event of an exhaust leak, this could have serious consequences. However, if it is only the outside air that is polluted, then use of the air conditioning would be beneficial. Other makes of automobiles are so designed that use of their air conditioning systems will bring in approximately 10% of the outside air. The statements above would apply as well, but the effects would be moderated by this ventilatory factor. In the second proposed goal, as given above, we attempted to estimate the CO in the ventilation air entering the car by placing the ECOLYZER on the floor of the car in front of the passenger seat. The automobile was then driven along a prescribed route and the readings of CO in ppm were recorded as often as November 1976
Volume 26, No. 11
possible for the observer. These levels ranged from 2 to 36. The Federal ambient air standard is 9 ppm for an 8 hr exposure. In particular areas, this level is regularly exceeded, depending upon wind direction and strength and on traffic density, even in residential areas. For example, as traffic slows down on Eisenhower Expressway in Chicago, the CO level in the automobile increases. On the test day, the traffic only slowed to 20 mph in the western suburbs and a CO level of 25 ppm was recorded; at other times, it has slowed to stop-start driving and the pollution level has been high enough to produce nausea and dizziness. Off the expressway, but on a parallel road in a residential area, the level was 15 ppm, still exceeding the Federal standard. When stopped behind another car, the level in the car climbed to 36 ppm. In areas where air pockets exist, trapping pollutant gases, elevated levels are detected by the instrument inside the automobile. For example, the area at Lincoln and Warren Avenues in Skokie and the drive-in area under the First National Bank are two such areas. Also, there is a pocket formed by a left turn on Frontage Road and an embankment upon which is an Edens exitway. This pocket is open north and west, but is closed south and east and, on a Saturday morning with little traffic, this pocket contained enough CO to register 25 ppm in the cab of the automobile. The third goal was to check various sites within the village for ambient air concentration of CO. The traffic engineer for the village who was contacted, supplied a list of locations that were heavily burdened with traffic. The Skokie police chief then assigned officers to take CO measurements at these locations on 2 successive days. The values of CO obtained ranged from 3 to 60 ppm. The highest levels reached in the test period were at 4800 Oakton (intersection of Oakton and Skokie Blvd.) (30-60 ppm). Other areas with appreciable levels include 7600 Skokie Blvd. (18-28 ppm), 7500 Lincoln (Lincoln at Skokie Blvd. (6-35 ppm), 8800 Skokie Blvd. (15-18 ppm), and 9200 Skokie Blvd. (10-20 ppm). Skokie Blvd. is a major North-South thoroughfare and the CO accumulations appear to occur at the major intersections along this route. Just east or just west of Skokie Blvd., the levels were significantly reduced (to 4-6 ppm), except at 5000 Golf, which has a stoplight and which is a major entrance to Old Orchard Shopping Center. The prime factor that appears to result in higher levels of CO is traffic delay, except where there is an exhaust leak. The actual dose to the driver is not known, but it would seem that the more traffic delays a driver is part of, the higher will be his exposure to CO.
Whether this is a prime factor in automobile accidents can't be answered from the data presented herein, but it is likely from the literature quoted and from the levels attained in the automobile interiors, that this is, at the least, a contributing factor. References 1. G. A. Peterson and R. H. Sabersky, "Measurements of pollutants inside an automobile," J. Air Poll. Control Assoc. 25:1028 (1975). 2. R. R. Beard and G. A. Wertheim, "Behavioral impairment associated with small doses of carbon monoxide," Amer. J. Publ. Health 57: 2012 (1967). 3. E. Groll-Knapp, H. Wagner, H. Hauck, and M. Haider, "Effects of low carbon monoxide concentrations on vigilance and computer-analyzed brain potentials," Staub-Reinhalt. Luft 32: 64 (1972). 4. G. G. Fodor and G. Winneke, "Effect of low CO concentrations on resistance to monotony and on psychomotor capacity," Staub-Reinhalt. Luft 32: 46 (1972) (English ed.). 5. S. M. Horvath, T. E. Dahms, and J. F. O'Hanlon, "Carbon monoxide and human vigilance. A deleterious effect of present urban concentrations," Arch. Environ. Health 23: 343 (1971). 6. J. F. O'Hanlon, "Preliminary Studies of the Effects of Carbon Monoxide on Vigilance in Man," In B. Weiss and V. G. Laties, eds., Behavioral Toxicology, Plenum, New York, 1974. 7. R. R. Beard and N. Grandstaff, "Carbon Monoxide and Human Functions," In B. Weiss and V. G. Laties, eds., Behavioral Toxicology, Plenum, New York, (1974). 8. J. Lewis, A. D. Baddeley, K. G. Bonham, and D. Lovett, "Traffic pollution and mental efficiency," Nature 225: 95 (1970). 9. J. Lewis, "Traffic Pollution and Mental Efficiency," pp. 207-213, In M. Horvath, ed., Adverse Effects of Environmental Chemicals and Psychotropic Drugs. Quantitative Interpretation of Functional Tests. Vol. I. Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, New York, 1973. 10. R. D. Stewart, J. E. Peterson, E. D. Baretta, R. T. Bachand, M. J. Hosko, and A. A. Herrmann, "Experimental human exposure to carbon monoxide," Arch. Environ. Health 21:154 (1970). 11. J. M. Ramsey, "Oxygen reduction and reaction time in hypoxic and normal drivers," Arch. Environ. Health 20:597 (1970). 12. National Academy of Sciences—National Academy of Engineering, "Air Quality and Automobile Emission Control. Vol. 2, Health Effects of Air Pollutants," Committee on Public Works, Serial No. 93-24, September, 1974. pp. 110-116. 13. E. W. Anderson, R. J. Andelman, J. M. Strauch, N. J. Fortuin, and J. H. Knelson, "Effect of low-level carbon monoxide exposure on onset and duration of angina pectoris. A study in ten patients with ischemic heart disease," Ann. Intern. Med. 79: 46 (1973). 14. W. S. Aronow, C. N. Harris, M. W. Isbell, S. N. Rokaw, and B. Imparato, "Effect of freeway travel on angina pectoris," Ann. Intern. Med. 77: 669 (1972). 15. W. S. Aronow and M. W. Isbell, "Carbon monoxide effect on exercise-induced angina pectoris," Ann. Intern. Med. 79: 392 (1973). 16. W. S. Aronow, E. A. Stemmer, and M. W. Isbell, "Effect of carbon monoxide ex-
1087
APCA NOTE-BOOK
posure on intermittent claudication," Circulation 49: 415 (1974). 17. National Academy of Sciences—National Academy of Engineering, "Air Quality and Automobile Emission Control. Vol. 2. Health Effects of Air Pollutants," Committee on Public Works, Serial No. 93-24, September, 1974. pp. 80-85. 18. P. Chovin, "Carbon monoxide: analysis of exhaust gas investigations in Paris," Environ. Res. 1:198 (1967).
19. G. D. Clayton, W. A. Cook, and W. G. Fredrick, "A study of the relationship of street level carbon monoxide concentrations to traffic accidents," Amer. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J. 21:46 (1960). 20. H. V. Thomas, P. K. Mueller, and R. L. Lyman," Lipoperoxidation of lung lipids in rats exposed to nitrogen dioxide," Science 159: 532 (1968). 21. M. C. Henry, R. Ehrlich, and W. H. Blair, "Effect of nitrogen dioxide on resistance of squirrel monkeys to Klebsiella pneumoniae infection," Arch. Environ. Health 18: 580 (1969). 22. M. C. Henry, J. Findlay, J. Spangler, and R. Ehrlich, "Chronic toxicity of NO2 in
squirrel monkeys. III. Effect on resistance to bacterial and viral infection," Arch. Environ. Health 20: 566 (1970). 23. C. L. Vassallo, B. M. Domm, R. H. Poe, M. L. Duncombe, and J. B. L. Gee, "NO2 gas and NO2 effects on alveolar macrophage phagocytosis and metabolism," Arch. Environ. Health 26: 270 (1973). 24. R. Ehrlich, "Effect of nitrogen dioxide on resistance to respiratory infection, Bacteriol. Rev. 30: 604 (1966). 25. R. Ehrlich and M. C. Henry, "Chronic toxicity of nitrogen dioxide: I. Effects on resistance to bacterial pneumonia," Arch. Environ. Health 17:860 (1968).
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Determination of Maximum Ground Level Concentration
Robert J. P. Ranchoux Montreal Urban Community Air Purification Division
The following method allows fast computation of maximum ground level concentration from graphs or mathematical equations which are very convenient when using a programmable calculator. Maximum Ground Level Concentration
Using Pasquill-Gifford and Holland's equations with dispersion coefficients valid for sampling times of 10 minutes, D. Bruce Turner plotted graphs giving xu/Q versus the distance from the source for six different stability categories (Figures 3-5A, B, C, D, E, F) in Ref. 1. The concentration x is expressed in g-m~3; u, the wind speed in m-s"1 and Q, the emission rate of contaminant in g-s"1. Using those graphs, one can plot (x"/Q)max versus the effective emission height H (expressed in m) and obtain six curves (Figure 1), each of which corresponds to meteorological or stability conditions A, B, C, D, E, F. For a given wind speed, it is easy to calculate H = h + k/u where h is the stack height (in m) and k a constant (in m2-s-1) for a given source and stability condition. Using the graphs, the corresponding value of (x"/Q)max can be found and multiplying by Q/u, XmaxWe have determined the equations of these curves using a polynomial regression program (least squares method) on a computer. The general equation can be written: (1)' 1000 Dr. Ranchoux is in the Montreal Urban Community, Air Purification Division, 9150 l'Acadie Blvd., Montreal, Quebec, H4N 2T2 Canada.
1088
Figure 1. (x"/Q)max versus Hfor stability conditions A-B-C-DE-F.
Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association
Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/uawm16
Carbon Monoxide: A Danger to the Driver? a
Lewis W. Mayron & John J. Winterhalter
a
a
Environment Commission , Village of Skokie Skokie , Illinois , USA Published online: 13 Mar 2012.
To cite this article: Lewis W. Mayron & John J. Winterhalter (1976) Carbon Monoxide: A Danger to the Driver?, Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association, 26:11, 1085-1088, DOI: 10.1080/00022470.1976.10470365 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00022470.1976.10470365
PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the “Content”) contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinions and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors, and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content should not be relied upon and should be independently verified with primary sources of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising out of the use of the Content. This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http:// www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions
Downloaded by [Van Pelt and Opie Library] at 21:27 19 October 2014
Carbon Monoxide: A Danger To The Driver?
Lewis W. Mayron and John J. Winterhalter Environment Commission, Village of Skokie Skokie, Illinois
Peterson and Sabersky1 measured the concentrations of ozone, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxide, and oxides of nitrogen under standard driving conditions in the Southern California area. They indicate that in an automobile with no inside source of carbon monoxide (CO), the interior concentrations will reflect those on the outside but in a more
This work was performed under the auspices of the Environment Commission of Skokie, IL. Address correspondence to Dr. Mayron, 5437 Suffield Terrace, Skokie, IL 60076. He is Chairman of the Skokie Environment Commission. The other members are Belle Holman, George Sackheim, Dr. Morton Klein, Dr. Martin Hamer, Joseph Cablk, George Brabec, Dr. Jerome Gourse, Jack Silbert, Irving Pavey, and John Handzel. Mr. Winterhalter is Director of Practical Arts, Niles West High School, Oakton Street at Edens Expressway, Skokie, IL 60076.
November 1976
Volume 26, No. 11
gradual manner. They did not record the rapid variations and high peaks in the interior that they did when samplings were taken from the outside. They reported that 25 ppm of CO was not often exceeded and the highest concentration of CO encountered was 45 ppm for a period of 3 min. The current permissible air quality standards for CO are 35 ppm for a 1 hr average and 9 ppm for an 8 hr average (1.5% carboxyhemoglobin is produced in a normal man at this level). There are three major reasons for these standards: 1. There is evidence that concentrations of carboxyhemoglobin (COHb) in the range of 3-5% (in equilibrium with 18-32 ppm) may adversely affect the ability to detect small unpredictable changes in the environment. This vigilance effect has been specifically demonstrated for time-interval discrimination,2 tone-intensity discrimination,3-4 light-intensity discrimination,5-6 light-
duration discrimination,7 and tonalduration discrimination.8'9 It was pointed out that CO concentrations of 25-100 ppm for periods ranging from 1 to 8 hr did not slow reaction time.10 However, another reaction time experiment in which students drove through downtown Dayton, OH for 90 min revealed definitive differences in capillary blood oxygen levels, demonstrating lowered oxygen levels and longer reaction times;11 the subjects had been exposed to CO at an average of 36 ppm during their ride of 90 min duration. 2. It is claimed that concentrations of COHb as low as 5% have been shown to decrease the maximal oxygen consumption during exercise in healthy young males.12 However, examination of these data leaves much to be desired at levels between 2 and 15% COHb, whereas it appears to have merit at levels between 15 and 31%. 3. Patients with cardiovascular disease will develop symptoms earlier while 1085
APCA NOTE-BOOK
Table I. CO levels in the automobile cab at idle and emissions test data.
Downloaded by [Van Pelt and Opie Library] at 21:27 19 October 2014
Exhaust gases—engine at idle
exercising when their COHb concentrations are raised above normal levels.13-16 Thus, relatively low levels of CO have been found to have physiological effects on humans. In terms of driving performance, the data are not very clear.17 However, Chovin18 analyzed blood samples from 1672 motor vehicle drivers who were thought to be responsible for accidents, 3818 samples from workers who were sometimes exposed to CO in their jobs, and 1518 samples from people who were suspected of having been exposed to domestic sources of CO. A cumulative distribution plot demonstrated that the automobile accident group had the highest CO blood levels, followed by the workers with CO exposure; the individuals with suspected home exposure had the lowest blood CO levels. However, there are still many unanswered questions regarding this study; therefore, conclusions must be held in abeyance. For example, if a driver is receiving his CO exposure from traffic, what is the effect of other pollutants that are present on his potential for having accidents. In addition, after studying the COHb levels of 237 individuals involved in traffic accidents, Clayton et al19 concluded that the CO level in the Detroit urban area does not appear to be related to impaired driving ability. However, this study also suffers from unanswered questions such as the level of CO in the automobile. We have been interested in several aspects of CO pollution, namely, ambient air levels and human health effects, levels inside an automobile and effects on driver performance. On the basis of current toxicity data, we attempted to deduce from CO levels at intersections, on busy streets and expressways, and in the cabs of automobiles, if there was a serious problem in terms of human health due to CO pollution. An ECOLYZER 2600 was made available for our use through the courtesy of Energetics Science, Inc. The portable instrument was used in 3 ways: 1) to measure CO levels on the inside of an idling automobile at the area of the driver's seat by extending an intake hose in through the left front window; 2) to measure CO levels in ventilating air entering the automobile by setting the CO analyzer on the floor of the right front portion of the interior, i.e., in front of the front passenger seat, and driving in various traffic conditions to determine the dependence, if any, of interior CO levels on traffic conditions; 3) to measure CO levels in the ambient air at busy traffic positions and intersections. 1086
Year of mfr. 68 70 72
AMC AMC AMC
67 67 70 73 73 73
Buick Buick Buick Buick Buick Buick Cadillac Cadillac Cadillac Chevrolet Chevrolet Chevrolet Chevrolet Chevrolet Chevrolet Chevrolet Chevrolet Chevrolet Chevrolet Chevrolet Datsun Datsun Dodge van Ford Ford Ford Ford Ford Ford Ford Ford Ford Ford Mercury Mercury Oldsmobile Oldsmobile Oldsmobile Oldsmobile Plymouth Plymouth Pontiac Renault Triumph Volkswagon Volkswagon Volkswagon Volkswagon
69 71 74 68 68 70 70 71 71 71 72 72 74 75 68 71 68 63 64 66 68 71 71 72 72 72 73 68 72 70 70 72 74 72 74 74 72 70 74 74 74 74 a
Mftr.
CO levels in passenger compartment (ppm) 5 6 2
100+ 3 2.5 2.5 8 2.5 3 2.5 7 7 8 3.5 2.5 18 4 4 15 13 3 3 4 3.5 28 70 6 10 6 2 22 4 6 3 12 5 4 13 2 4 1.5 3 4 7 12 — 5 3 5 2
CO
(ppm)a 10,000 40,000 20,000 37,500 25,000 40,000 52,500 15,000 2,500 5,000 12,000 4,000 45,000 50,000 65,000 2,500 20,000 25,000 42,500 18,000 15,000 3,000 10,000 60,000 75,000+ 40,000 50,000 50,000 30,000 45,000 7,000 47,500 2,000 22,000 3,000 15,000 70,000 2,000 15,000 4,000 2,500 13,000 70,000 8,000 5,000 75,000 4,500 35,000 4,000 70,000 30,000
Hydrocarbons (ppm) 120 650 195 150 300 450 220 90 100 50 200 95 375 300 300 100 190 100 400 170 200 100 190 500 650 450 300 320 150
2,000+ 110 180 500
2,000+ 95 140 350 25 150 90 100 215 320 110 100 900 375 220 100 300 200
A 10,000 ppm CO concentration is equivalent to 1% CO.
Results The measurement of interior CO levels was performed by a team of students and instructors in the automobile mechanics program at Niles West High School in Skokie, IL.* Residents of * The CO measuring team was comprised of teachers and students from the Auto Mechanics program, namely, Marcus Anderson and G. Larry Erickson, teachers, and Richard Rosenberg, William Meyer, Matt Vogel, Gary Unrath, Ron Rabinovitz, and Ray Stanko.
Skokie were invited to bring their automobiles to the High School to be tested. No smoking was permitted while the samples were being taken. In addition, CO and hydrocarbons were determined in the exhaust emissions at the normal idle of the car by standard instrumentation (Sun Electric Co., Exhaust Emission Unit, Model #U-912). The results obtained from this survey are illustrated in Table I. Note that
Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association
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there is no correlation between the CO levels in the exhaust and in the car interiors. The interior of a 1967 Buick registered at the top of the meter scale, which was in excess of 100 ppm, but was well within the CO emission limits for that vintage (37,500 ppm); and a 1963 Ford registered 70 ppm in its cab but 50,000 ppm in its exhaust gas, still within the standard. Others were as shown, including 28 ppm for a 1968 Dodge van and 22 ppm for a 1971 Ford. Thus, 51 cars were tested for interior CO levels and 2 of them had levels far in excess of those found in the other cars. Whether these levels are safe is doubtful, but whether a significant effect can be demonstrated on the drivers of the cars would depend upon how much time each driver spends in his car, either at any one time or cumulatively. If the cars are used only for around the neighborhood driving, which might involve 10 min/trip, then no problems may be noticed. However, a long drive of several hours would be extremely dangerous, not only to the occupants of the car but also to the other party in the consequent accident. Nine other cars exceeeded the 8 hr standard of 9 ppm; these are of concern but they would be relatively less dangerous than the 2 that were at 70 and over 100 ppm. If there is a serious exhaust leak to the interior of a car, then other noxious agents from the exhaust are also entering the car. The effects from nitrogen dioxide include destruction by oxidation of some of the lipid components of the lungs,20 resulting in lowered oxygen uptake by the lungs and consequent increased respiratory rate,21-22 and destruction of the lung macrophages,23 which result in decreased resistance to lung infections.21'24'25 Thus, the combined effects of these emissions must be considered in either exhaust leaks or high-density traffic pollution. In particular makes of cars, the operating manuals imply only recirculation of internal air when the air conditioning is on in full. In the event of an exhaust leak, this could have serious consequences. However, if it is only the outside air that is polluted, then use of the air conditioning would be beneficial. Other makes of automobiles are so designed that use of their air conditioning systems will bring in approximately 10% of the outside air. The statements above would apply as well, but the effects would be moderated by this ventilatory factor. In the second proposed goal, as given above, we attempted to estimate the CO in the ventilation air entering the car by placing the ECOLYZER on the floor of the car in front of the passenger seat. The automobile was then driven along a prescribed route and the readings of CO in ppm were recorded as often as November 1976
Volume 26, No. 11
possible for the observer. These levels ranged from 2 to 36. The Federal ambient air standard is 9 ppm for an 8 hr exposure. In particular areas, this level is regularly exceeded, depending upon wind direction and strength and on traffic density, even in residential areas. For example, as traffic slows down on Eisenhower Expressway in Chicago, the CO level in the automobile increases. On the test day, the traffic only slowed to 20 mph in the western suburbs and a CO level of 25 ppm was recorded; at other times, it has slowed to stop-start driving and the pollution level has been high enough to produce nausea and dizziness. Off the expressway, but on a parallel road in a residential area, the level was 15 ppm, still exceeding the Federal standard. When stopped behind another car, the level in the car climbed to 36 ppm. In areas where air pockets exist, trapping pollutant gases, elevated levels are detected by the instrument inside the automobile. For example, the area at Lincoln and Warren Avenues in Skokie and the drive-in area under the First National Bank are two such areas. Also, there is a pocket formed by a left turn on Frontage Road and an embankment upon which is an Edens exitway. This pocket is open north and west, but is closed south and east and, on a Saturday morning with little traffic, this pocket contained enough CO to register 25 ppm in the cab of the automobile. The third goal was to check various sites within the village for ambient air concentration of CO. The traffic engineer for the village who was contacted, supplied a list of locations that were heavily burdened with traffic. The Skokie police chief then assigned officers to take CO measurements at these locations on 2 successive days. The values of CO obtained ranged from 3 to 60 ppm. The highest levels reached in the test period were at 4800 Oakton (intersection of Oakton and Skokie Blvd.) (30-60 ppm). Other areas with appreciable levels include 7600 Skokie Blvd. (18-28 ppm), 7500 Lincoln (Lincoln at Skokie Blvd. (6-35 ppm), 8800 Skokie Blvd. (15-18 ppm), and 9200 Skokie Blvd. (10-20 ppm). Skokie Blvd. is a major North-South thoroughfare and the CO accumulations appear to occur at the major intersections along this route. Just east or just west of Skokie Blvd., the levels were significantly reduced (to 4-6 ppm), except at 5000 Golf, which has a stoplight and which is a major entrance to Old Orchard Shopping Center. The prime factor that appears to result in higher levels of CO is traffic delay, except where there is an exhaust leak. The actual dose to the driver is not known, but it would seem that the more traffic delays a driver is part of, the higher will be his exposure to CO.
Whether this is a prime factor in automobile accidents can't be answered from the data presented herein, but it is likely from the literature quoted and from the levels attained in the automobile interiors, that this is, at the least, a contributing factor. References 1. G. A. Peterson and R. H. Sabersky, "Measurements of pollutants inside an automobile," J. Air Poll. Control Assoc. 25:1028 (1975). 2. R. R. Beard and G. A. Wertheim, "Behavioral impairment associated with small doses of carbon monoxide," Amer. J. Publ. Health 57: 2012 (1967). 3. E. Groll-Knapp, H. Wagner, H. Hauck, and M. Haider, "Effects of low carbon monoxide concentrations on vigilance and computer-analyzed brain potentials," Staub-Reinhalt. Luft 32: 64 (1972). 4. G. G. Fodor and G. Winneke, "Effect of low CO concentrations on resistance to monotony and on psychomotor capacity," Staub-Reinhalt. Luft 32: 46 (1972) (English ed.). 5. S. M. Horvath, T. E. Dahms, and J. F. O'Hanlon, "Carbon monoxide and human vigilance. A deleterious effect of present urban concentrations," Arch. Environ. Health 23: 343 (1971). 6. J. F. O'Hanlon, "Preliminary Studies of the Effects of Carbon Monoxide on Vigilance in Man," In B. Weiss and V. G. Laties, eds., Behavioral Toxicology, Plenum, New York, 1974. 7. R. R. Beard and N. Grandstaff, "Carbon Monoxide and Human Functions," In B. Weiss and V. G. Laties, eds., Behavioral Toxicology, Plenum, New York, (1974). 8. J. Lewis, A. D. Baddeley, K. G. Bonham, and D. Lovett, "Traffic pollution and mental efficiency," Nature 225: 95 (1970). 9. J. Lewis, "Traffic Pollution and Mental Efficiency," pp. 207-213, In M. Horvath, ed., Adverse Effects of Environmental Chemicals and Psychotropic Drugs. Quantitative Interpretation of Functional Tests. Vol. I. Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, New York, 1973. 10. R. D. Stewart, J. E. Peterson, E. D. Baretta, R. T. Bachand, M. J. Hosko, and A. A. Herrmann, "Experimental human exposure to carbon monoxide," Arch. Environ. Health 21:154 (1970). 11. J. M. Ramsey, "Oxygen reduction and reaction time in hypoxic and normal drivers," Arch. Environ. Health 20:597 (1970). 12. National Academy of Sciences—National Academy of Engineering, "Air Quality and Automobile Emission Control. Vol. 2, Health Effects of Air Pollutants," Committee on Public Works, Serial No. 93-24, September, 1974. pp. 110-116. 13. E. W. Anderson, R. J. Andelman, J. M. Strauch, N. J. Fortuin, and J. H. Knelson, "Effect of low-level carbon monoxide exposure on onset and duration of angina pectoris. A study in ten patients with ischemic heart disease," Ann. Intern. Med. 79: 46 (1973). 14. W. S. Aronow, C. N. Harris, M. W. Isbell, S. N. Rokaw, and B. Imparato, "Effect of freeway travel on angina pectoris," Ann. Intern. Med. 77: 669 (1972). 15. W. S. Aronow and M. W. Isbell, "Carbon monoxide effect on exercise-induced angina pectoris," Ann. Intern. Med. 79: 392 (1973). 16. W. S. Aronow, E. A. Stemmer, and M. W. Isbell, "Effect of carbon monoxide ex-
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posure on intermittent claudication," Circulation 49: 415 (1974). 17. National Academy of Sciences—National Academy of Engineering, "Air Quality and Automobile Emission Control. Vol. 2. Health Effects of Air Pollutants," Committee on Public Works, Serial No. 93-24, September, 1974. pp. 80-85. 18. P. Chovin, "Carbon monoxide: analysis of exhaust gas investigations in Paris," Environ. Res. 1:198 (1967).
19. G. D. Clayton, W. A. Cook, and W. G. Fredrick, "A study of the relationship of street level carbon monoxide concentrations to traffic accidents," Amer. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J. 21:46 (1960). 20. H. V. Thomas, P. K. Mueller, and R. L. Lyman," Lipoperoxidation of lung lipids in rats exposed to nitrogen dioxide," Science 159: 532 (1968). 21. M. C. Henry, R. Ehrlich, and W. H. Blair, "Effect of nitrogen dioxide on resistance of squirrel monkeys to Klebsiella pneumoniae infection," Arch. Environ. Health 18: 580 (1969). 22. M. C. Henry, J. Findlay, J. Spangler, and R. Ehrlich, "Chronic toxicity of NO2 in
squirrel monkeys. III. Effect on resistance to bacterial and viral infection," Arch. Environ. Health 20: 566 (1970). 23. C. L. Vassallo, B. M. Domm, R. H. Poe, M. L. Duncombe, and J. B. L. Gee, "NO2 gas and NO2 effects on alveolar macrophage phagocytosis and metabolism," Arch. Environ. Health 26: 270 (1973). 24. R. Ehrlich, "Effect of nitrogen dioxide on resistance to respiratory infection, Bacteriol. Rev. 30: 604 (1966). 25. R. Ehrlich and M. C. Henry, "Chronic toxicity of nitrogen dioxide: I. Effects on resistance to bacterial pneumonia," Arch. Environ. Health 17:860 (1968).
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Determination of Maximum Ground Level Concentration
Robert J. P. Ranchoux Montreal Urban Community Air Purification Division
The following method allows fast computation of maximum ground level concentration from graphs or mathematical equations which are very convenient when using a programmable calculator. Maximum Ground Level Concentration
Using Pasquill-Gifford and Holland's equations with dispersion coefficients valid for sampling times of 10 minutes, D. Bruce Turner plotted graphs giving xu/Q versus the distance from the source for six different stability categories (Figures 3-5A, B, C, D, E, F) in Ref. 1. The concentration x is expressed in g-m~3; u, the wind speed in m-s"1 and Q, the emission rate of contaminant in g-s"1. Using those graphs, one can plot (x"/Q)max versus the effective emission height H (expressed in m) and obtain six curves (Figure 1), each of which corresponds to meteorological or stability conditions A, B, C, D, E, F. For a given wind speed, it is easy to calculate H = h + k/u where h is the stack height (in m) and k a constant (in m2-s-1) for a given source and stability condition. Using the graphs, the corresponding value of (x"/Q)max can be found and multiplying by Q/u, XmaxWe have determined the equations of these curves using a polynomial regression program (least squares method) on a computer. The general equation can be written: (1)' 1000 Dr. Ranchoux is in the Montreal Urban Community, Air Purification Division, 9150 l'Acadie Blvd., Montreal, Quebec, H4N 2T2 Canada.
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Figure 1. (x"/Q)max versus Hfor stability conditions A-B-C-DE-F.
Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association
