Psychological Reports: Mental & Physical Health 2014, 114, 2, 585-596. © Psychological Reports 2014

BODY-TANNING ATTITUDES AMONG FEMALE COLLEGE STUDENTS1, 2 JEONG-JU YOO Department of Family and Consumer Sciences Baylor University WON-MOO HUR Pukyong National University, Busan Republic of Korea Summary.—This study investigated the attitudes of body-tanning behaviors: suntanning, tanning bed, tanning spray, and sunless tanning product use. Data collected from 208 female college students (M age = 19.8 yr., SD = 2.0; M weight = 63.3 kg, SD = 2.0; M height = 165.9 cm, SD = 8.1) online. The questionnaire comprised four constructs: appearance-based, health-based, and emotion-based tanning attitudes, and body-tanning behaviors. Both appearance-based and emotion-based pro-tanning attitudes were associated with significantly higher body-tanning behaviors. However, health-based pro-tanning attitudes did not significantly affect body-tanning behaviors. The results from both UV- and non-UV exposure-related tanning behaviors provide future intervention strategies, such as establishing a positive body image without a tan and identifying negative emotional consequences as a result of tanning.

The harmful effects of tanning have been communicated to the general public; however, people continue to sunbathe and use tanning beds (Cafri, Thompson, Jacobsen, & Hillhouse, 2009; Asvat, Cafri, Thompson, & Jacobsen, 2010; Guy, Tai, & Richardson, 2011). Frequent mass media portrayals of tanned fashion models, in part, account for the popularity of tanned bodies in American culture (Cafri, Thompson, Roehrig, van den Berg, Jacobsen, & Stark, 2006). Outdoor sunbathing was the only way to achieve a tanned appearance in the 1920s, when sunbathing gradually gained popularity (Martin, Ghaferi, Cummins, Mamelak, Schmults, Parikh, et al., 2009). Indoor tanning booths have emerged as a popular way to achieve a tanned appearance (Indoor Tanning Association, 2009). Tanning lotions, creams, and sprays that can be applied at home or in salons have become available; the market size for these products is large due to awareness of skin cancer as a result of UV exposure (Fu, Dusza, & Halpern, 2004). All methods of body tanning (i.e., sunbathing, tanning beds, Address correspondence to Won-Moo Hur, School of Business Administration, Pukyong National University, 599-1 Daeyon 3-dong, Nam-gu, Busan, 608–737 Republic of Korea or e-mail ([email protected]). 2 This work was supported by the 2014 College of Business Administration Research Fund in Pukyong National University. 1

DOI 10.2466/06.07.PR0.114k21w5

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tanning sprays, and sunless tanning products) have become widely accepted in attaining the “right” tan. Previous studies have identified appearance-based reasons to tan as the attitudinal antecedents of body-tanning behaviors for both sunbathing and tanning bed use, in particular. For example, Cafri, et al. (2006) conducted a study with 149 female college students and confirmed that desired general attractiveness was a main reason for sunbathing and using a tanning bed. In a subsequent study, Cafri, et al. (2009) confirmed with 589 female college students that appearance was a significant factor influencing both outdoor as well as indoor UVA exposure. However, it is important to take all body-tanning methods into account in understanding attitudes toward body-tanning behaviors. The prevalence of indoor tanning bed use has been conducted primarily with adolescents (Lazovich, Forster, Sorensen, Emmons, Stryker, Demierre, et al., 2004), and the use of sunless tanning products, such as tanning sprays and lotions, has not been incorporated in body-tanning behavior studies. In addition, it is evident that body-tanning attitudes transcending appearance-related concerns have been largely overlooked (Feldman, Liguori, Kucenic, Rapp, Fleischer, Lang, et al., 2004). This study investigates the full spectrum of bodytanning methods (i.e., sunbathing, tanning beds, tanning sprays at salons, and sunless tanning product use) to fill this research gap in identifying the relationship between body-tanning attitudes and behaviors. Tanning Methods and Activity Outdoor tanning can be motivated by positive comments about one's tanned appearance and having siblings and friends who tan together as a social time (Shoveller, Lovato, Young, & Moffat, 2003). Sunscreen is sometimes used by young adults to achieve the desired shade of tan, as well as to avoid sunburn, risk of skin damage, and skin cancer (Shoveller, et al., 2003). Pettijohn, Pettijohn, and Geschke (2009) compared the tanning behavior frequencies in 1995 to those of 2005 with 151 and 208 male and female U.S. college students, respectively. They found that the 2005 sample (M = 3.78) more frequently engaged in sun tanning behaviors, compared to the 1995 sample (M = 3.91). Indoor tanning beds have become increasingly popular among younger populations in the United States (Guy, et al., 2011). The 2009 National Youth Risk Behavior Survey revealed the usage frequency of indoor tanning devices, which greatly varied by gender: 25.4% of 9th- to 12th-grade female students used them, compared to 6.7% of their male counterparts. Almost half of those who used an indoor tanning device did so 10 or more times. Tanning bed use increases with age for both boys and girls aged 14 to 16 yr. Most female tanning bed users believe that they are more attractive with a tan (69%), become more confident (71%), and look healthier (67%) (Mackay, Lowe, Edwards, & Rogers, 2007).

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Tanning lotions (among “sunless tanning products”) are an alternative method of obtaining a tan at home (Girgis, Tzelepis, Paul, Walsh, McElduff, & McKenzie, 2003). Tanning sprays used at tanning salons, have often been preferred by consumers for a better quality tan (Brooks, Brooks, Dajani, Swetter, Powers, Pagoto, et al., 2006). The recognition that UVA exposure damages skin, which can cause skin cancer, has led to a new industry developing and producing these products (Stryker, Yaroch, Moser, Atienza, & Glanz, 2007). Consumers in the U. S. spend approximately $86 million for sunless tanning products, accounting for 50% of global self-tanning sales (Fu, et al., 2004). Tanning Attitudes and Motivations Although tanned skin was associated historically with the manual working class, it has evolved into a fashion statement (Martin, et al., 2009). Vail-Smith and Felts (1993) found that 90% of the participants agreed that physical attractiveness was the primary reason for having a tan in their descriptive analysis of 296 female and male college students. In subsequent studies, Hillhouse, Turrisi, Holwiski, and McVeigh (1999) reported significant relationship between appearance motivation as a predictor to tanning bed use intentions (β = 0.24) among 254 male and female college students, suggesting that some variance in indoor tanning bed use is explained by appearance motivations. Cafri, et al. (2006) also reported a correlation between general attractiveness and sunbathing, as well as indoor tanning bed use among female college students. The seven items developed by Cash and Pruzinsky (2002) were used to assess attitudes toward appearance, which is the Appearance Evaluation Subscale of the Multidimensional Body Self Relation Questionnaire (MBSRQAE). In a subsequent study, appearance-based attitudes and frequent tanning behavior involving sunbathing (r = .23, p < .05) and tanning bed use (r = .26, p < .05) were statistically significant, with tanned skin perceived as more attractive (r = .24, p < .05) than untanned skin among 589 female college students (Cafri, et al., 2009). Hypothesis 1. Appearance-based pro-tanning attitudes increase bodytanning behaviors; the effect size is expected to be small. Tanned skin has become historically associated with good health, whereas pale skin has connotations of poor health (Dougherty, McDermott, & Hawkins, 1988; Randle, 1997). Indeed, sun exposure is the primary way to obtain vitamin D (Moan, Porojnicu, Dahlback, & Setlow, 2008; Woo & Eide, 2010). One study conducted by phone interviews with 484 adults revealed that people opt to tan outdoors because they believe they look healthier with a tan, even when they realize that sun exposure damages the skin (Robinson, Amonette, & Wyatt, 1998). However, a study of

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254 college students showed that the positive health perceptions of being tanned were not a significant predictor of using an indoor tanning bed (β = 0.08) (Hillhouse, et al., 1999). These findings suggest that body-tanning behaviors in connection to the desire to be physically healthy require further analysis. Hypothesis 2. Health-based pro-tanning attitudes increase bodytanning behaviors; the effect size is expected to be small. Emotional reasons for body-tanning behaviors have not been well documented (Feldman, et al., 2004), but surveys suggest that many individuals tan for relaxation. Dougherty, et al. (1988) reported that frequent tanning bed users often claimed they gained therapeutic benefits. Hillhouse, Stair, and Adler (1996) examined the sunbathing behaviors of 90 male and female college students and found that a relaxation motive (r = .42, p < .01) was related to more hours of sunbathing. Danoff-Burg and Mosher (2006) found a similar correlation (r = .56, p < .01). Dennis, Lowe, and Snetselaar (2009) reported that “feeling better” was a reason participants gave for sun tanning (87.6%) and tanning bed use (77.4%) in their descriptive analysis conducted with 162 college students. Having positive emotional attitudes were found to be relevant benefits gained from outdoor tanning. Hypothesis 3. Emotion-based pro-tanning attitudes increase bodytanning behaviors; the effect size is expected to be moderate. Based on the literature review, the empirical findings for body-tanning methods are limited, since only sunbathing and tanning bed use behaviors have been frequently researched. This study will extend understanding of body-tanning attitudes to include all popular tanning methods. Clarifying relations between body-tanning attitudes and behaviors will allow better assessment of implications for body-tanning behaviors among college students in the United States. METHOD Participants After this study gained Institutional Review Board approval, college students enrolled in the Family and Consumer Sciences Department at a university located in central Texas were contacted for an online survey. The data were analyzed with responses from only female participants because indoor tanning bed and tanning spray patrons are primarily women in the United States (Stryker, et al., 2007; Heckman, Coups, & Manne, 2008; Choi, Lazovich, Southwell, Forster, Rolnick, & Jackson, 2010). In addition, it is important to note the characteristics of the department, in which the

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majority of the students enrolled are women. A consent form was given on the webpage, in which the nature of the study was explained to the participants. Participation was voluntary, and consent was obtained by clicking on an “agree” or “disagree” button to participate; moreover, participants were informed that they could withdraw at any time. The screen containing the questionnaire appeared only when the participants agreed. The online survey was conducted to facilitate the input of the data collected, in that the survey responses were automatically transferred to an Excel file. Due to the anonymous and voluntary nature of online surveys, the number of participants contacted was unknown, and no compensation or credit was provided for participation. However, the responses of 208 female college students (M age = 19.8 yr., SD = 2.0; M weight = 63.3 kg, SD = 2.0; M height = 165.9 cm, SD = 8.1) were obtained. The majority of the participants were Caucasian (79.7%), followed by African American (7.7%), Hispanic (5.8%), Asian American (3.8%), multiracial (3.8%), and 9.1% did not answer the question. Measurement Table 1 presents the survey's 16 statements. Participants rated each of these statements on a 5-point scale, with anchors 5: Strongly agree and 1: Strongly disagree. The four items measuring appearance-based tanning attitudes (see Table 1 for items) were modified from Cafri, Thompson, Roehrig, Rojas, Sperry, Jacobsen, et al. (2008). The scale had an internal consistency reliability of α = .85. Possible scores ranged from 4 to 20. Three items were developed to measure health-based attitudes (Table 1), based on Dougherty, et al. (1988) and Woo and Eide (2010). Cronbach's α was .80. Possible scores ranged from 3 to 15. Emotion-based attitudes (Table 1) were measured using five items based on Dennis, et al. (2009). Cronbach's α was .93. The scores ranged from 5 to 25. The body-tanning behavior scale was developed by the researchers to measure body-tanning methods, including sunbathing, tanning beds, tanning sprays at tanning salons, and sunless tanning product use. The four items had Cronbach's α of .79, and the possible scores ranged from 4 to 20. Analyses The measurement model was examined by using a series of reliability and validity tests. The internal consistency of the included measurement items within each construct was investigated with Cronbach's α. Composite reliability (CR), factor loading (FL), and Average Variance Extracted (AVE) were used to check the convergent validity of the measurement items. Following the validation test, the explanatory power of the proposed model was assessed and the hypothesis tested using Partial Least Squares (PLS), which does not require a normality check of the data as a

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J-J. YOO & W-M. HUR TABLE 1 CONSTRUCTS AND THEIR MEASUREMENT ITEMS

Construct

Measurement Item

Appearance- 1. Tanned skin is atbased tractive. attitudes 2. A tan fixes skin (α = .85) problems.

Tanning behaviors (α = .79)

CR

AVE

.87

0.90

0.69

Assigned Rating, % Sample* 1

2

12 13

3

4

5

M

51 104 23

5

.76

71 56

39

31

6

5

3. I want to be darker.

.89

71 60

38

26

8

5

4. A tan makes me look thinner.

.80

57 55

31

46 13

6

29 65

78

29

2

5

Health-based 1. A tanned body is attitudes healthy. (α = .80) 2. I get vitamin D from tanning.

Emotionbased attitudes (α = .95)

Factor Loading

.82

0.88

0.72

.82

36 26

68

64

9

5

3. A tan makes me look more active.

.89

30 34

48

73 18

5

1. Tanning is a leisure activity.

.85

22 18

38 107 16

7

2. I enjoy tanning.

.93

34 23

36

6

0.95

0.78

83 26

3. Tanning makes me feel good.

.93

34 21

49

79 20

5

4. Tanning is relaxing.

.94

37 20

36

85 25

5

5. A tan makes me look as if I have traveled.

.75

36 51

51

55 10

5

1. I suntan outdoors (lying in the sun).

.83

43 35

65

43 20

3

2. I use a tanning bed (indoor tanning).

.84

134 25

20

14 12

3

3. I use tanning spray (at tanning salons).

.89

160 25

11

0.86

0.61

7

2

3

4. I use over the counter ‘sunless tanning products’ (tanning lotion, tanning spray). .75 108 34 34 20 9 3 Note.—All factor loadings were significant (p < .01); CR = composite reliability; AVE = average variance extracted. *Results are percent of sample assigning each rating 1: Strongly disagree; 2: Disagree; 3: Neutral; 4: Agree; 5: Strongly agree; M: missing response.

nonparametric technique. The SmartPLS software package was used for the statistical analysis. RESULTS The composite reliability and AVE values satisfied the suggested criteria (Gefen, Straub, & Boudreau, 2004), and all item loadings for each

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construct exceeded .7. In addition, the AVE of each construct was compared with the shared variance between constructs. As shown in Table 2, the AVE's squared root for the individual construct exceeded its shared variance with the other constructs, suggesting that constructs fulfilled the requirements of discriminant validity. TABLE 2 DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS, CORRELATIONS, AND AVE FOR EACH VARIABLE Variable

M

SD

1. Appearance-based attitudes

0.85

0.95

2. Health-based attitudes

2.85

0.88

Correlation 1

2

3

4

AVE 0.69

.77

0.72

3. Emotion-based attitudes

3.09

1.07

.74

.73

4. Body-tanning behaviors

1.98

0.86

.71

.63

0.78 .70

0.61

Figure 1 provides the standardized path coefficients of each parameter, and shows that the proposed model explained 57.1% of the variance in body-tanning behaviors. In total, three paths were examined in the structural model (Table 3). Demographic factors such as age, height, and weight were used as control variables. Both appearance-based and emotion-based attitudes had significant positive paths to body-tanning behaviors, thereby supporting Hypotheses 1 and 3. However, health-based attitudes showed no significant path to body-tanning behaviors; Hypothesis 2 was not supported.

FIG. 1. Model and path coefficients. *p < .05. †p < .01.

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J-J. YOO & W-M. HUR TABLE 3 RESULTS OF PATH ANALYSIS Path

Hypothesis 1

Appearance-based attitudes → Body-Tanning Behavior

Hypothesis 2

Heath-based attitudes → Body-Tanning Behavior

Hypothesis 3

Emotional-based attitudes → Body-Tanning Behavior

Path Coefficient

t

0.47

4.06†

–0.10

0.90

0.39

4.03†

0.17

1.46

Weight → Body-Tanning Behavior

–0.21

2.53*

Height → Body-Tanning Behavior

–0.10

0.80

Control variables Age → Body-Tanning Behavior

*p < .05. †p < .01.

DISCUSSION The results lend support to appearance-based attitudes of tanned skin as an important construct, which can predict body-tanning behaviors. Previous studies noted that outdoor sunbathing and indoor tanning bed use are significantly related to appearance enhancement (Hillhouse, et al., 1999; Cafri, et al., 2006; Cafri, et al., 2009); in the current study, appearancebased attitudes among female college students were also related to indoor tanning bed use (Hillhouse, et al., 1999; Cafri, et al., 2006) and sunbathing (Cafri, et al., 2006), but were extended here to other tanning behaviors. Appearance-based attitudes had a relatively larger effect (r = .71) on bodytanning behaviors as compared to Cafri, et al. (2009), which assessed only UV-induced tanning methods (r = .23). This result implies that female college students who hold positive appearance-based attitudes toward tanning are more likely to be invested in a variety of tanning methods. The same motivations seem to apply to adoption of sunless tanning products or tanning sprays. Overweight or obese individuals often participate in excessive dieting or exercise (Jones & Crawford, 2005). Body size perceptions may lead to excessive tanning behavior, but it was expected that being overweight would inversely influence body-tanning. Media representations show tanned individuals as attractive but also fit, so that female college students could perceive a fit body as being a prerequisite for achieving an ideal tan, as indicated by the negative path coefficient from weight to tanning behavior. Emotion-based attitudes associated with leisure activities, enjoyment, and relaxation, in which body tanning is an outcome, are important in understanding body-tanning behaviors. Previous studies have found that relaxation is a reason to sunbathe and use indoor tanning beds among female adults in particular (Hillhouse, et al., 1999; Danoff-Burg & Mosher, 2006);

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e.g., college women who expect positive emotional benefits from tanning, such as finding it to be relaxing, report frequent sunbathing (r = .42; Hillhouse, et al., 1999) and frequent tanning bed use (r = .56; Danoff-Burg & Mosher, 2006). Results from the current study showed a similar pattern with regard to emotion-based attitudes. Since emotion-based tanning attitudes may affect behaviors related to all tanning methods, which has not been empirically tested in the past, attitudes involving tanning products or sprays seem to be related to body-tanning behaviors in general. The measure of specific health-based tanning attitudes did not have a significant path coefficient to body-tanning behaviors. Although this contradicts the previous hypothesis that perceptions of maintaining an active and healthy body would be associated with tanning (Dougherty, et al., 1988; Fiala, Kopp, & Gunther, 1997), the result is consistent with Hillhouse, et al. (1999), who found no association between health orientation and indoor tanning bed use. Good awareness of the health risks of tanning behaviors (i.e., skin cancer, sunburn) suggests that physical attractiveness and positive emotions are more important outcomes for these young women. Since appearance-based attitudes showed a consistent but larger effect relative to emotion-based attitudes, a variety of tanning methods, including sunless tanning products or tanning sprays at salons, can be targeted toward appearance-conscious women. Prevention of the health risks of tanning could emphasize negative emotional consequences, or perhaps the ease of using “healthier” sprays. Limitations and Suggestions for Future Research A more structured and rigorous sampling method could be used, including men, various demographic profiles, etc. This study was conducted in one particular region of the U. S.; thus, the findings should be not be generalized. The cross-sectional design and self-reported surveys used to measure body-tanning attitudes limit understanding of linkages between variables. Future research should measure actual tanning behaviors, including indoor or outdoor tanning. Attitudinal scale items from the existing literature may not completely cover the reasons for tanning; qualitative focusgroup methods could be used to improve the measures. Future research should address the relationship between body tanning and other personal fitness and health-related behaviors (i.e., eating habits and exercise), since body weight and appearance perceptions are related to tanning. Positive emotions toward tanning should be further identified, as well as any negative emotional consequences experienced. The majority of body-tanning behavior studies have been conducted in individualistic cul-

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tures, so it is important to conduct studies with populations in collectivistic cultures or with other ethnic minorities inside the United States. REFERENCES

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Body-tanning attitudes among female college students.

This study investigated the attitudes of body-tanning behaviors: suntanning, tanning bed, tanning spray, and sunless tanning product use. Data collect...
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