Global Health Global health concerns span a wide range of issues, from prevention of infectious disease to environmental contamination. In this Global Health article, Dr Jianling Xu and colleagues from Changchun, an industrialized city in Northeastern China with a special focus on the automotive industry, report on lead and cadmium concentrations in the blood of more than 1400 children. This is one of the first studies to systematically evaluate heavy metal exposure in Chinese children. Interestingly, these investigators have found that the concentrations of lead and cadmium were, on average, lower than the limited data available for other Chinese cities, despite Changchun being dry, dusty and a centre for heavy industry. Among children with higher lead and cadmium concentrations, risk factors appeared to mirror the risk factors associated with exposure to these metals in other countries. Michael J Rieder, Associate Editor, Paediatrics & Child Health
Blood lead and cadmium levels in children: A study conducted in Changchun, Jilin Province, China Jianling Xu PhD1, Lianxi Sheng PhD1, Zhenghong Yan PhD2, Lianjin Hong MD1 J Xu, L Sheng, Z Yan, L Hong. Blood lead and cadmium levels in children: A study conducted in Changchun, Jilin Province, China. Paediatr Child Health 2014;19(2):73-76. OBJECTIVES: Exposure to lead and cadmium in developing countries
is considered to be a public health emergency. The present study was designed to investigate children’s exposure to lead and cadmium in Changchun, China. METHODS: A total of 1619 blood samples were collected at random from 1426 children between one and 14 years of age, and 204 adults from Changchun, China. Blood lead and cadmium levels were determined using atomic absorption spectrophotometry. RESULTS: The average blood lead level in children was 60.29 μg/L, with boys exhibiting higher blood lead levels than girls. The average blood cadmium level in children was 1.26 μg/L, and differences were not observed between boys and girls. CONCLUSIONS: Children from Changchun exhibited relatively low blood lead and cadmium levels compared with children from other cities, and higher lead and lower cadmium levels than adults. This may be related to leaded gasoline environmental pollution and children’s hand-to-mouth activities. Key Words: Blood; Cadmium; Changchun; Children; Lead
L
ong-term exposure to lead may cause serious health problems, particularly in young children (1-3). Lead is toxic to many organs and tissues including the immunological, neurological and reproductive systems (4). The hazards of lead exposure in children are more extensive than in adults, and their growing bodies make them more susceptible to absorbing and retaining lead (5-7). The WHO has placed lead as the leading factor among the 13 environmental factors that are hazardous to the health of children. It has been reported that a decrease in IQ of more than six to seven points can result from mean blood lead concentrations >100 μg/L (5). The United States has made tremendous advances against lead exposure in children, as demonstrated by two nationwide surveys of blood lead levels conducted in the United States in 1976 and 1991, respectively. According to these surveys, the number of cases with blood lead levels >100 μg/L dropped from 88.3% to 11.5%
Les taux de plomb et de cadmium dans le sang des enfants : une étude menée à Changchun, dans la province du Jilin, en Chine OBJECTIFS : L’exposition au plomb et au cadmium est considérée comme une urgence de santé publique dans les pays en développement. La présente étude était conçue pour examiner l’exposition des enfants de Changchun, en Chine, au plomb et au cadmium. MÉTHODOLOGIE : Les chercheurs ont colligé au hasard un total de 1 619 prélèvements de sang auprès de 1 426 enfants de un à 14 ans et de 204 adultes de Changchun, en Chine. Ils ont déterminé leur taux de plomb et de cadmium dans le sang au moyen de la spectrophotométrie d’absorption atomique. RÉSULTATS : La plombémie moyenne des enfants s’élevait à 60,29 μg/L et était plus élevée chez les garçons que chez les filles. Le taux moyen de cadmium dans le sang des enfants s’élevait à 1,26 μg/L et n’était pas différent entre les garçons et les filles. CONCLUSIONS : Les enfants de Changchun présentaient un taux relativement faible de plomb et de cadmium dans le sang par rapport aux enfants d’autres villes, et un taux plus élevé de plomb et plus faible de cadmium que les adultes. Ce phénomène peut être lié à la pollution environnementale par l’essence au plomb et au fait que les enfants portent beaucoup leurs mains à leur bouche.
among one- to two-year-old children, and from 88.1% to 7.3% among three- to five-year-old children (7). The persistent toxicity of lead in children was observed to result in significant and serious impairment of cognitive development as well as level of intelligence (5,8,9). In addition, osseous lead exposure may be the cause of the high incidence of rickets among children and the failure of some conventional treatments for the disease (10). Exposures in these situations or absorption from contaminated food, water and air could result in cadmium accumulation in the human body. In newborns, increases in blood cadmium levels are mainly caused by recent contact with cadmium (11). Acute exposure to cadmium fumes may cause symptoms such as headache, dizziness, loss of appetite, coughing and asthma. The incidence of stomach and duodenal ulcers, bronchitis, urinary stones
1Key
Laboratory of Wetland Ecology and Vegetation Restoration, Ministry of Environmental Protection of the People’s Republic of China, School of Environment, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, China; 2Child Health Care Department, The Second Clinical Hospital, Jilin University, Changchun, China Correspondence: Dr Jianling Xu, College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Northeast Normal University, No. 2555 Jingyue Road, Changchun, Jilin Province 130117, China. Telephone 86-1594-8761983, fax 86-0431-85687516, e-mail [email protected] Accepted for publication October 3, 2013
Paediatr Child Health Vol 19 No 2 February 2014
©2014 Pulsus Group Inc. All rights reserved
73
Xu et al
Table 1 Blood lead and cadmium levels in the 1426 children surveyed Blood lead, μg/L
Cadmium poisoning, n (%)
Blood cadmium, μg/L
Blood lead and cadmium levels in children: A study conducted in Changchun, Jilin Province, China Jianling Xu PhD1, Lianxi Sheng PhD1, Zhenghong Yan PhD2, Lianjin Hong MD1 J Xu, L Sheng, Z Yan, L Hong. Blood lead and cadmium levels in children: A study conducted in Changchun, Jilin Province, China. Paediatr Child Health 2014;19(2):73-76. OBJECTIVES: Exposure to lead and cadmium in developing countries
is considered to be a public health emergency. The present study was designed to investigate children’s exposure to lead and cadmium in Changchun, China. METHODS: A total of 1619 blood samples were collected at random from 1426 children between one and 14 years of age, and 204 adults from Changchun, China. Blood lead and cadmium levels were determined using atomic absorption spectrophotometry. RESULTS: The average blood lead level in children was 60.29 μg/L, with boys exhibiting higher blood lead levels than girls. The average blood cadmium level in children was 1.26 μg/L, and differences were not observed between boys and girls. CONCLUSIONS: Children from Changchun exhibited relatively low blood lead and cadmium levels compared with children from other cities, and higher lead and lower cadmium levels than adults. This may be related to leaded gasoline environmental pollution and children’s hand-to-mouth activities. Key Words: Blood; Cadmium; Changchun; Children; Lead
L
ong-term exposure to lead may cause serious health problems, particularly in young children (1-3). Lead is toxic to many organs and tissues including the immunological, neurological and reproductive systems (4). The hazards of lead exposure in children are more extensive than in adults, and their growing bodies make them more susceptible to absorbing and retaining lead (5-7). The WHO has placed lead as the leading factor among the 13 environmental factors that are hazardous to the health of children. It has been reported that a decrease in IQ of more than six to seven points can result from mean blood lead concentrations >100 μg/L (5). The United States has made tremendous advances against lead exposure in children, as demonstrated by two nationwide surveys of blood lead levels conducted in the United States in 1976 and 1991, respectively. According to these surveys, the number of cases with blood lead levels >100 μg/L dropped from 88.3% to 11.5%
Les taux de plomb et de cadmium dans le sang des enfants : une étude menée à Changchun, dans la province du Jilin, en Chine OBJECTIFS : L’exposition au plomb et au cadmium est considérée comme une urgence de santé publique dans les pays en développement. La présente étude était conçue pour examiner l’exposition des enfants de Changchun, en Chine, au plomb et au cadmium. MÉTHODOLOGIE : Les chercheurs ont colligé au hasard un total de 1 619 prélèvements de sang auprès de 1 426 enfants de un à 14 ans et de 204 adultes de Changchun, en Chine. Ils ont déterminé leur taux de plomb et de cadmium dans le sang au moyen de la spectrophotométrie d’absorption atomique. RÉSULTATS : La plombémie moyenne des enfants s’élevait à 60,29 μg/L et était plus élevée chez les garçons que chez les filles. Le taux moyen de cadmium dans le sang des enfants s’élevait à 1,26 μg/L et n’était pas différent entre les garçons et les filles. CONCLUSIONS : Les enfants de Changchun présentaient un taux relativement faible de plomb et de cadmium dans le sang par rapport aux enfants d’autres villes, et un taux plus élevé de plomb et plus faible de cadmium que les adultes. Ce phénomène peut être lié à la pollution environnementale par l’essence au plomb et au fait que les enfants portent beaucoup leurs mains à leur bouche.
among one- to two-year-old children, and from 88.1% to 7.3% among three- to five-year-old children (7). The persistent toxicity of lead in children was observed to result in significant and serious impairment of cognitive development as well as level of intelligence (5,8,9). In addition, osseous lead exposure may be the cause of the high incidence of rickets among children and the failure of some conventional treatments for the disease (10). Exposures in these situations or absorption from contaminated food, water and air could result in cadmium accumulation in the human body. In newborns, increases in blood cadmium levels are mainly caused by recent contact with cadmium (11). Acute exposure to cadmium fumes may cause symptoms such as headache, dizziness, loss of appetite, coughing and asthma. The incidence of stomach and duodenal ulcers, bronchitis, urinary stones
1Key
Laboratory of Wetland Ecology and Vegetation Restoration, Ministry of Environmental Protection of the People’s Republic of China, School of Environment, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, China; 2Child Health Care Department, The Second Clinical Hospital, Jilin University, Changchun, China Correspondence: Dr Jianling Xu, College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Northeast Normal University, No. 2555 Jingyue Road, Changchun, Jilin Province 130117, China. Telephone 86-1594-8761983, fax 86-0431-85687516, e-mail [email protected] Accepted for publication October 3, 2013
Paediatr Child Health Vol 19 No 2 February 2014
©2014 Pulsus Group Inc. All rights reserved
73
Xu et al
Table 1 Blood lead and cadmium levels in the 1426 children surveyed Blood lead, μg/L
Cadmium poisoning, n (%)
Blood cadmium, μg/L
