THE AMERICANJOURNALOF PSYCHOANALYSIS37:285-290(1977)
B I L I N G U A L I S M A N D SENSE O F SELF Luis R. Marcos, Judith E. Eisma, and Jose G u i m o n
The field of bilingualism has been extensively studied by linguists, psychologists, and sociologists. 1 Although the existing literature offers a wide diversity of views, these judgments agree that the bilingual experience has major effects on the individual's personality formation and integration? "6 Early authors have stressed its detrimental effects on the emotional and intellectual stability of the person. Thus, Sander referred to the "bilinguality of feelings" and the "mercenary relativism" of bilinguals who switch principles and values as they switch languagesJ Henss contended that bilinguals become subject to an inner split and in their struggle for becoming "one" they suffer intellectual and moral deterioration. 8 Bilingualism has also been thought to be a predisposing factor towards schizophrenia, 9 and mental retardation2 °," Most of these pessimistic judgments seem to share the rationale of an implication chain by which two languages imply two personalities, which in turn imply psychodynamic conflict. In more recent years, however, when bilingualism has been studied independently of other, often concomitant, stressful sociological variables (e.g., migration, acculturation, biculturalism, social marginality), the conclusions have been surprisingly different. In fact, it now appears that having two languages may help some individuals to become more flexible, superior in concept formation, and more diversified in their mental abilities. I=-Is The interest of clinicians in bilingualism has been rather limited and relatively recent. In general, two major factors and their effects on psychotherapy have been considered--namely, the language barrier and the language independence. The language barrier refers to the problems involved in having to process information and communicate in a nondominant, poorly commanded language; ~e-22the language independence has to do with the capacity of some proficient bilinguals to maintain two independent systems of language and its implications for psychotherapy. 2~'27 In this paper our purpose is to consider the effect of the bilingual experience upon the sense of self of some patients. Specifically, we will focus on the clinical observation that bilingual patients engaged in psychoanalytic treatment often report the experience of a language-specific sense of self; that is, they feel and perceive themselves as two different persons according to the language that they LuisR. Marcos, M.D., AssociateProfessor,Departmentof Psychiatry,New York UniversityMedical School;JudithE. Eisma,Drs. The Hague,Holland; JoseGuimon,M.D., ActingChairman,Department of Psychiatry,Bilbao University,Bilbao,Spain. 285
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LUIS R. MARCOS, JUDITH E. EISMA, AND JOSE GUIMON
speak. This language-determined sense of dual self was briefly reported by Greenson in 1950 when describing the psychoanalysis of a bilingual patient whose languages were German and English. In his report Greenson described the patient as saying "In German I am a scared, dirty child; in English I am a nervous, refined woman.,,28, p. 19 He contended that in that patient the second language gave her the opportunity of establishing a new self-portrait and led to a kind of "multiple personality.,,28, p. 21 Reviewing the literature we find that the notion that bilinguals do not simply have a duplex set of words to refer to objects and experiences, but rather have alternate and not necessarily congruent experiential inner worlds is not a new one. In effect, under experimental conditions bilinguals have been found to display different characterological traits, 29 to recollect different sets of past experiences, 3° and to experience a different sense of identity 31 according to the language that they speak. Although the explanations for these findings vary, the most classical interpretation involves the language-relativity hypothesis, also known as the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis. 32-34This still controversial supposition postulates that language is not merely a vehicle of communication by which people talk about things that exist independently of their language, but rather that language itself represents a reality by means of which people perceive, structure, and organize their worlds. In accord with this assumption, then, bilingual individuals would be led by different pictures of the universe depending on which language they speak. In 1929 Sapir wrote "We as individuals see and hear and otherwise experience very largely as we do because the language habits of our community predispose certain choices of interpretation.,,32 In our work with bilingual patients who report the experience of a languagespecific sense of self, we have found that they tend to share certain attributes (diagnostically we are limiting these considerations to patients who suffer from neuroses or personality disorders). Linguistically these patients can be classified as proficient-coordinate-adolescence bilinguals; these are bilinguals who display a native-speaker's command of the two languages, have acquired each language in a different and distinct cultural context, and have learned the second language at some postchildhood period--generally during late adolescence. A more-extensive description of the different dimensions and characteristics of bilingual patients in general has been the topic of a recent communication in this Journal. 27 Generally, these bilingual patients seek psychiatric help for reasons other than language-related identity conflicts. In fact, it is only at a relatively advanced stage of the analytic treatment that this issue becomes apparent. Once the language-related sense of dual self is brought up by the patient as analytic material, it constitutes an important area of conflict with conscious and unconscious ramifications. At the conscious level, patients often report depressive feelings in connection with a sense of dual existence and awareness of their behavior. They may sense that they act differently, or that their attitudes may be different, according to the language that they speak. A commonly experienced disturbance of the awareness of self-unity by
BILINGUALISM AND SENSEOF SELF
287
these bilinguals consists of feeling like two different persons, or feeling as if acting automatically or compulsively in one of the languages. Some patients also report a loss of emotionality or lack of genuine feelings when relating in one of the languages. The complaint that they "hear" themselves as two distinct individuals according to the language that they speak constitutes a common problem. Interestingly, under experimental conditions, bilinguals do display different emotional responses to their listening to their own voices according to the language that they use.3s In regard to this finding it has been suggested that listening to one's own voice implies a confrontation with identification paradigms formed along with the spoken language, locked within that language, and expressed through that language. In recent years, several authors have emphasized the importance of sensory feedback, particularly auditory feedback, for the development and patterning of one's sense of identity and ego functions such as self-observation, self-regulation, and selfevaluation. 36,37 Also at a conscious level, bilingual patients dealing with a language-related sense of dual self often describe a lack of self-continuity; specifically, they report "not being the same person" they used to be prior to the acquisition of their second language. Along with that feeling there is usually an intense recollection of ideals, values, and expectations which were linked to the learning of the second language. These language-linked wishes may be related to the cultural values to which the language is connected (particularly if the patient migrated to a new culture at the time of acquiring the second language), or may be associated with values that they admired in important others (e.g., when the father speaks one language and the mother another, the patient may associate each language with certaiin paternal and maternal attributes respectively). At an unconscious level we frequently find that each language of the bilingual patient may be linked to different ego defenses. Often the second language is allied with intellectualization and more-obsessive defenses than the first language. An illustration of this problem was presented in a clinical paper on the defensive aspects of lying during psychoanalysis. ~ In this report, the case history of a bilingual patient was described. The patient's languages were English and Spanish, but she always chose to speak in English, her second language. For more than one year this bilingual patient withheld information and lied about important aspects of her personality. It was only when she used the Spanish language, her rnother tongue, that her lying became apparent. We contend that this patient's superego control was stricter in her mother tongue and it made it impossible for her to maintain her deception in such a language. Bilingual patients may also utilize unconsciously the language-specific self to compartmentalize and deny unacceptable trends and impulses by connecting them to one of the languages. Usually we have found these dynamics in patients who attempt to deny their original identity linked to their first language by emphasizing a "new" identity supported by their second language. At any rate, this language-related sense of dual self with its conscious and unconscious ramifications constitutes a source of conflict, identity confusion, and,
288
LUIS R. MARCOS, JUDITH E. EISMA, AND JOSE GUIMON
not infrequently, the trigger mechanism of complex intrapsychic turmoil. The degree of alienation, splitting, and dissociation associated with it, however, varies from patient to patient, and so do its implications for the treatment process. Some treatment guidelines can, nevertheless, be considered. In a general sense, it is crucial that clinicians be sensitized to the possible significance and consequences of thebilingual's language-specific sense of self. In the first place, factors that should be routinely explored include the developmental stage during which the second language was acquired, the experiential worlds and object relationships associated with each language, and values and ego-ideal attributes linked to each language. Clinicians should explore both aspects that are shared by the two languages as well as those that may be unique to either language. These general data will permit the clinician to anticipate the possible dynamics and qualities of a language-related sense of dual self. It is also important to keep in mind the possible defensive functions of this language-related splitting, such as the compartmentalization and repression of an unacceptable past ego-identity in an attempt to establish a new one. 3g In this regard, when the therapist and the patient are matched bili nguals, and the treatment is open to the use of either language, the choice of language and the temporary switch from one language to the other offer the opportunity to explore directly the patient's language-specific sense of self, and to analyze its cognitive and affective components. As early as 1949, Buxbaum 4° saw the necessity for some bilingual patients in psychoanalysis to verbalize in the language of their childhood. She felt that certain childhood memories come alive only when the verbal expressions of that period are used. She, in fact, compared this effect with Ferenczi's views on the use of obscene language in psychoanalysis. 41 A bilingual therapist may have some additional therapeutic strategies available. In our experience, however, bilinguals' language-related duality can be analyzed and resolved through one of the languages. Regardless of their linguistic status, then, clinicians should attempt to help these patients to understand their linguistic experience and its implications for their identity formation and integration, for it may constitute an important obstructing force in these patients' struggle to achieve the necessary subjective sense of invigorating sameness and continuity, 42 and the experience of "this is the real me. ''43 As with patients who suffer from mutiple personality, bilingual patients with a distressing sense of dual self should be encouraged to conceive their language-related duality as a dissociated side of the total person. Accordingly, efforts should be directed to the integration of this sense of dual self into one total and harmonized personality. REFERENCES
1. Mackey, W. F. International Bibliography on Bilingualism. Quebec: Les Presses de L'universit~ Laval, 1972.
BILINGUALISM AND SENSEOF SELF
289
2. Bossard, J. H. The bilingual as a person, linguistic identification with status. Am. Soc. Rev., 10:699-709, 1945. 3. Weinreich, U. Languages in Contact: Findings and Problems. New York:: Publications of the Linguistic Circle of New York, 1953. 4. Haugen, E. The Bilingual Individual. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1961. 5. Diebold, A. R. The consequences of early bilingualism in cognitive development and personality formation. In The Study of Personality. (Norberk, E., Price-Williams, D., McCord, W. M. Eds.) New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1967, pp. 218-245. 6. Lambert, W. E. Language, Psychology and Culture. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1972. 7. Sander, F. Seelische Strktur und Sprache. Neue Psychologische Studien, 12:59, 1934. 8. Henss, W. Zweisprachigkeit als P~dagogisches Problem. Ethnopolitischer Almanach, 2:47-55, 1931. 9. Christophersen, P. Bilingualism. London: Methuen, 1948. 10. Jones, W. R., and Steward, W. A. Bilingualism and verbal intelligence. Br. J. Psychol., 4:3-8, 1951. 11. Johnson, G. B. Bilingualism as measured by reaction time technique and the relationship between a language and a nonlanguage intelligence quotient. J. Genet~ Psychol., 82:39, 1953. 12. Peal, E. and Lambert, W. E. The relation of bilingualism to intelligence. Psychol. Mono., 76:1-23, 1962. 13. Fishman, J. Language in Sociocultural Change. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1972. 14. Bain, B. C. Bilingualism and Cognition: Towards a General Theory. Edmonton, ON: College Universitaire Saint-Jean, University of Alberta. 1974. 15. Cummins, J. P. and Gulutsan, M. Some Effects of Bilingualism on Cogni~ive Functioning. Edmonton, ON: College Universitaire Saint-Jean, University of Alberta. 1974. 16. Lagache, D. Sur le polyglottism dans I'analyse. La Psychoanalyse, 1:167-178, 1956. 17. Caruso, I. A. and Duque, R. T. El problema del psicoan~lisis en lengua extranjera. Arch. Estud. Psicoanal., 3:7-78, 1966. 18. Marcos, L. R., Alpert, M., Urcuyo, L., Kesselman, M. The effect of interview language on the evaluation of psychopathology in Spanish-American schizophrenic patients. Am. J. Psychiatry, 130:549-553, 1973. 19. Marcos, L. R., Urcuyo, L., Kesselman, M., Alpert, M. The language barrier in evaluating Spanish-American patients. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry, 29:655-659, 1973. 20. Marcos, L. R. On the assessment of psychopathology in the Puerto Rican patient. Research in Education, 9:20, 1974. 21. Marcos, L. R. La expresi6n del proceso psicopatol6gico a trav~s de la barrera del lenguaje. Rev. Esp. Psicoter. Analit., 7:45-133, 1975. 22. Marcos, L. R. Bilinguals in psychotherapy: language as an emotional barrier. Am. J. Psychother., 30:552-560, 1976. 23. Velikovsky, I. Can a newly acquired language become the speech of the unconscious. Psychoan. Rev., 21:329-335, 1934. 24. Stengel, E. On learning a new language. Int. J. Psychoanal., 20:471-479, 1939. 25. Marcos, L. R. and Alpert, M. Strategies and risks in the psychotherapy of bilinguals: the phenomenon of language independence. Am. J. Psychiatry, 133:1275-1278, 1976. 26. Marcos, L. R. Psychotherapy with bilingual patients. Paper presented at the 53rd Annual
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LUIS R. MARCOS, JUDITH E. EISMA, AND JOSE GUIMON
Meeting of the American Orthopsychiatric Association, Atlanta, GA, 1975. 27. Marcos, L. R. Linguistic dimensions in the bilingual patient. Am. J. Psychoanal., in press. 28. Greenson, R. R. The mother tongue and the mother. Int. J. Psychoanal., 31:18- 23, 1950. 29. Findling, j. Bilingual need affiliation and future orientation in extragroup and intragroup domains. Mod. Lang. J., 53:227-231, 1969. 30. Ervin, S. M. Language and T. A. T. content in bilinguals. J. Abnorm. Soc. Psychol., 68:500-507, 1964. 31. Hodge, V. D. Bilingualism and the development of self-constancy: a structural approach. Unpublished manuscript, 1976. 32. Sapir, E. The status of linguistics as a science. Language, 5:207-214, 1929. 33. Whorl, B. L. Science and linguistics. Tech. Rev., 44:229, 1940. 34. Fishman, J. A systematization of the Whorfian hypothesis. Behav. Sci., 4:323-339, 1960. 35. Holzman, P. S., Berger, A., Rousey, C. Voice confrontation: a bilingual study.J. Pers. Soc. Psychol., 7:423-428, 1967. 36. Klein, G. S. On Hearing one's Own Voice. New York: International Universities Press, 1965. 37. Mahl, G. F. People talking when they can't hear their voices. In Studies in Dyadic Communication. Siegman, A. W. and Pope, B. Eds. New York: Pergamon Press, pp. 211-264. 38. Marcos, L. R. Lying: a particular defense met in psychoanalytic therapy. Am. J. Psychoanal., 32:195-202, 1972. 39. Krapf, E. E. The choice of language in polyglot psychoanalysis. Psychoanal. Q., 24:343-357, 1955. 40. Buxbaum, E. The role of second language in the formation of the ego and superego. Psychoanal. Q., 18:279-289, 1949. 41. Ferenczi, S. Uber Obsz6ne Worte. Int. Psychoana. Verlag, 1:171-186, 1927. 42. Erikson, E. H. Identity Youth and Crisis. New York: Norton, 1968. 43. James, H. The Letters of William James. Boston: The Atlantic Monthly Press, 1920. ..
Reprint requests to Luis R. Marcos, M.D., Department of Psychiatry, New York University Medical School, 550 First Avenue, New York, NY 10016.
B I L I N G U A L I S M A N D SENSE O F SELF Luis R. Marcos, Judith E. Eisma, and Jose G u i m o n
The field of bilingualism has been extensively studied by linguists, psychologists, and sociologists. 1 Although the existing literature offers a wide diversity of views, these judgments agree that the bilingual experience has major effects on the individual's personality formation and integration? "6 Early authors have stressed its detrimental effects on the emotional and intellectual stability of the person. Thus, Sander referred to the "bilinguality of feelings" and the "mercenary relativism" of bilinguals who switch principles and values as they switch languagesJ Henss contended that bilinguals become subject to an inner split and in their struggle for becoming "one" they suffer intellectual and moral deterioration. 8 Bilingualism has also been thought to be a predisposing factor towards schizophrenia, 9 and mental retardation2 °," Most of these pessimistic judgments seem to share the rationale of an implication chain by which two languages imply two personalities, which in turn imply psychodynamic conflict. In more recent years, however, when bilingualism has been studied independently of other, often concomitant, stressful sociological variables (e.g., migration, acculturation, biculturalism, social marginality), the conclusions have been surprisingly different. In fact, it now appears that having two languages may help some individuals to become more flexible, superior in concept formation, and more diversified in their mental abilities. I=-Is The interest of clinicians in bilingualism has been rather limited and relatively recent. In general, two major factors and their effects on psychotherapy have been considered--namely, the language barrier and the language independence. The language barrier refers to the problems involved in having to process information and communicate in a nondominant, poorly commanded language; ~e-22the language independence has to do with the capacity of some proficient bilinguals to maintain two independent systems of language and its implications for psychotherapy. 2~'27 In this paper our purpose is to consider the effect of the bilingual experience upon the sense of self of some patients. Specifically, we will focus on the clinical observation that bilingual patients engaged in psychoanalytic treatment often report the experience of a language-specific sense of self; that is, they feel and perceive themselves as two different persons according to the language that they LuisR. Marcos, M.D., AssociateProfessor,Departmentof Psychiatry,New York UniversityMedical School;JudithE. Eisma,Drs. The Hague,Holland; JoseGuimon,M.D., ActingChairman,Department of Psychiatry,Bilbao University,Bilbao,Spain. 285
286
LUIS R. MARCOS, JUDITH E. EISMA, AND JOSE GUIMON
speak. This language-determined sense of dual self was briefly reported by Greenson in 1950 when describing the psychoanalysis of a bilingual patient whose languages were German and English. In his report Greenson described the patient as saying "In German I am a scared, dirty child; in English I am a nervous, refined woman.,,28, p. 19 He contended that in that patient the second language gave her the opportunity of establishing a new self-portrait and led to a kind of "multiple personality.,,28, p. 21 Reviewing the literature we find that the notion that bilinguals do not simply have a duplex set of words to refer to objects and experiences, but rather have alternate and not necessarily congruent experiential inner worlds is not a new one. In effect, under experimental conditions bilinguals have been found to display different characterological traits, 29 to recollect different sets of past experiences, 3° and to experience a different sense of identity 31 according to the language that they speak. Although the explanations for these findings vary, the most classical interpretation involves the language-relativity hypothesis, also known as the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis. 32-34This still controversial supposition postulates that language is not merely a vehicle of communication by which people talk about things that exist independently of their language, but rather that language itself represents a reality by means of which people perceive, structure, and organize their worlds. In accord with this assumption, then, bilingual individuals would be led by different pictures of the universe depending on which language they speak. In 1929 Sapir wrote "We as individuals see and hear and otherwise experience very largely as we do because the language habits of our community predispose certain choices of interpretation.,,32 In our work with bilingual patients who report the experience of a languagespecific sense of self, we have found that they tend to share certain attributes (diagnostically we are limiting these considerations to patients who suffer from neuroses or personality disorders). Linguistically these patients can be classified as proficient-coordinate-adolescence bilinguals; these are bilinguals who display a native-speaker's command of the two languages, have acquired each language in a different and distinct cultural context, and have learned the second language at some postchildhood period--generally during late adolescence. A more-extensive description of the different dimensions and characteristics of bilingual patients in general has been the topic of a recent communication in this Journal. 27 Generally, these bilingual patients seek psychiatric help for reasons other than language-related identity conflicts. In fact, it is only at a relatively advanced stage of the analytic treatment that this issue becomes apparent. Once the language-related sense of dual self is brought up by the patient as analytic material, it constitutes an important area of conflict with conscious and unconscious ramifications. At the conscious level, patients often report depressive feelings in connection with a sense of dual existence and awareness of their behavior. They may sense that they act differently, or that their attitudes may be different, according to the language that they speak. A commonly experienced disturbance of the awareness of self-unity by
BILINGUALISM AND SENSEOF SELF
287
these bilinguals consists of feeling like two different persons, or feeling as if acting automatically or compulsively in one of the languages. Some patients also report a loss of emotionality or lack of genuine feelings when relating in one of the languages. The complaint that they "hear" themselves as two distinct individuals according to the language that they speak constitutes a common problem. Interestingly, under experimental conditions, bilinguals do display different emotional responses to their listening to their own voices according to the language that they use.3s In regard to this finding it has been suggested that listening to one's own voice implies a confrontation with identification paradigms formed along with the spoken language, locked within that language, and expressed through that language. In recent years, several authors have emphasized the importance of sensory feedback, particularly auditory feedback, for the development and patterning of one's sense of identity and ego functions such as self-observation, self-regulation, and selfevaluation. 36,37 Also at a conscious level, bilingual patients dealing with a language-related sense of dual self often describe a lack of self-continuity; specifically, they report "not being the same person" they used to be prior to the acquisition of their second language. Along with that feeling there is usually an intense recollection of ideals, values, and expectations which were linked to the learning of the second language. These language-linked wishes may be related to the cultural values to which the language is connected (particularly if the patient migrated to a new culture at the time of acquiring the second language), or may be associated with values that they admired in important others (e.g., when the father speaks one language and the mother another, the patient may associate each language with certaiin paternal and maternal attributes respectively). At an unconscious level we frequently find that each language of the bilingual patient may be linked to different ego defenses. Often the second language is allied with intellectualization and more-obsessive defenses than the first language. An illustration of this problem was presented in a clinical paper on the defensive aspects of lying during psychoanalysis. ~ In this report, the case history of a bilingual patient was described. The patient's languages were English and Spanish, but she always chose to speak in English, her second language. For more than one year this bilingual patient withheld information and lied about important aspects of her personality. It was only when she used the Spanish language, her rnother tongue, that her lying became apparent. We contend that this patient's superego control was stricter in her mother tongue and it made it impossible for her to maintain her deception in such a language. Bilingual patients may also utilize unconsciously the language-specific self to compartmentalize and deny unacceptable trends and impulses by connecting them to one of the languages. Usually we have found these dynamics in patients who attempt to deny their original identity linked to their first language by emphasizing a "new" identity supported by their second language. At any rate, this language-related sense of dual self with its conscious and unconscious ramifications constitutes a source of conflict, identity confusion, and,
288
LUIS R. MARCOS, JUDITH E. EISMA, AND JOSE GUIMON
not infrequently, the trigger mechanism of complex intrapsychic turmoil. The degree of alienation, splitting, and dissociation associated with it, however, varies from patient to patient, and so do its implications for the treatment process. Some treatment guidelines can, nevertheless, be considered. In a general sense, it is crucial that clinicians be sensitized to the possible significance and consequences of thebilingual's language-specific sense of self. In the first place, factors that should be routinely explored include the developmental stage during which the second language was acquired, the experiential worlds and object relationships associated with each language, and values and ego-ideal attributes linked to each language. Clinicians should explore both aspects that are shared by the two languages as well as those that may be unique to either language. These general data will permit the clinician to anticipate the possible dynamics and qualities of a language-related sense of dual self. It is also important to keep in mind the possible defensive functions of this language-related splitting, such as the compartmentalization and repression of an unacceptable past ego-identity in an attempt to establish a new one. 3g In this regard, when the therapist and the patient are matched bili nguals, and the treatment is open to the use of either language, the choice of language and the temporary switch from one language to the other offer the opportunity to explore directly the patient's language-specific sense of self, and to analyze its cognitive and affective components. As early as 1949, Buxbaum 4° saw the necessity for some bilingual patients in psychoanalysis to verbalize in the language of their childhood. She felt that certain childhood memories come alive only when the verbal expressions of that period are used. She, in fact, compared this effect with Ferenczi's views on the use of obscene language in psychoanalysis. 41 A bilingual therapist may have some additional therapeutic strategies available. In our experience, however, bilinguals' language-related duality can be analyzed and resolved through one of the languages. Regardless of their linguistic status, then, clinicians should attempt to help these patients to understand their linguistic experience and its implications for their identity formation and integration, for it may constitute an important obstructing force in these patients' struggle to achieve the necessary subjective sense of invigorating sameness and continuity, 42 and the experience of "this is the real me. ''43 As with patients who suffer from mutiple personality, bilingual patients with a distressing sense of dual self should be encouraged to conceive their language-related duality as a dissociated side of the total person. Accordingly, efforts should be directed to the integration of this sense of dual self into one total and harmonized personality. REFERENCES
1. Mackey, W. F. International Bibliography on Bilingualism. Quebec: Les Presses de L'universit~ Laval, 1972.
BILINGUALISM AND SENSEOF SELF
289
2. Bossard, J. H. The bilingual as a person, linguistic identification with status. Am. Soc. Rev., 10:699-709, 1945. 3. Weinreich, U. Languages in Contact: Findings and Problems. New York:: Publications of the Linguistic Circle of New York, 1953. 4. Haugen, E. The Bilingual Individual. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1961. 5. Diebold, A. R. The consequences of early bilingualism in cognitive development and personality formation. In The Study of Personality. (Norberk, E., Price-Williams, D., McCord, W. M. Eds.) New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1967, pp. 218-245. 6. Lambert, W. E. Language, Psychology and Culture. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1972. 7. Sander, F. Seelische Strktur und Sprache. Neue Psychologische Studien, 12:59, 1934. 8. Henss, W. Zweisprachigkeit als P~dagogisches Problem. Ethnopolitischer Almanach, 2:47-55, 1931. 9. Christophersen, P. Bilingualism. London: Methuen, 1948. 10. Jones, W. R., and Steward, W. A. Bilingualism and verbal intelligence. Br. J. Psychol., 4:3-8, 1951. 11. Johnson, G. B. Bilingualism as measured by reaction time technique and the relationship between a language and a nonlanguage intelligence quotient. J. Genet~ Psychol., 82:39, 1953. 12. Peal, E. and Lambert, W. E. The relation of bilingualism to intelligence. Psychol. Mono., 76:1-23, 1962. 13. Fishman, J. Language in Sociocultural Change. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1972. 14. Bain, B. C. Bilingualism and Cognition: Towards a General Theory. Edmonton, ON: College Universitaire Saint-Jean, University of Alberta. 1974. 15. Cummins, J. P. and Gulutsan, M. Some Effects of Bilingualism on Cogni~ive Functioning. Edmonton, ON: College Universitaire Saint-Jean, University of Alberta. 1974. 16. Lagache, D. Sur le polyglottism dans I'analyse. La Psychoanalyse, 1:167-178, 1956. 17. Caruso, I. A. and Duque, R. T. El problema del psicoan~lisis en lengua extranjera. Arch. Estud. Psicoanal., 3:7-78, 1966. 18. Marcos, L. R., Alpert, M., Urcuyo, L., Kesselman, M. The effect of interview language on the evaluation of psychopathology in Spanish-American schizophrenic patients. Am. J. Psychiatry, 130:549-553, 1973. 19. Marcos, L. R., Urcuyo, L., Kesselman, M., Alpert, M. The language barrier in evaluating Spanish-American patients. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry, 29:655-659, 1973. 20. Marcos, L. R. On the assessment of psychopathology in the Puerto Rican patient. Research in Education, 9:20, 1974. 21. Marcos, L. R. La expresi6n del proceso psicopatol6gico a trav~s de la barrera del lenguaje. Rev. Esp. Psicoter. Analit., 7:45-133, 1975. 22. Marcos, L. R. Bilinguals in psychotherapy: language as an emotional barrier. Am. J. Psychother., 30:552-560, 1976. 23. Velikovsky, I. Can a newly acquired language become the speech of the unconscious. Psychoan. Rev., 21:329-335, 1934. 24. Stengel, E. On learning a new language. Int. J. Psychoanal., 20:471-479, 1939. 25. Marcos, L. R. and Alpert, M. Strategies and risks in the psychotherapy of bilinguals: the phenomenon of language independence. Am. J. Psychiatry, 133:1275-1278, 1976. 26. Marcos, L. R. Psychotherapy with bilingual patients. Paper presented at the 53rd Annual
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LUIS R. MARCOS, JUDITH E. EISMA, AND JOSE GUIMON
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