Perceptuafand Motor Skills, 1991, 72, 467-475.
O Perceptual and Motor Skills 1991
ATTITUDES TOWARD PEOPLE WITH DISABILITIES AND JUDGMENTS OF EMPLOYMENT POTENTIAL ' LISA A. CHRISTMAN AND B. LEWIS SLATEN Consumer A h i r s Department Aubrrrn Universify Summary.-The relationship between employers' expressed attitudes toward people with disabilities and their impressions of the employment potential of female job applicants was investigated. 120 subjects viewed videotapes of a simulated interview situation which included either an able-bodied applicant, one on crutches, or one in a wheelchair. The dependent measures included a scale for employment characteristics and management potential and the Attitudes Toward Disabled Persons Scale. Analysis of variance showed the applicants depicted as disabled were rated higher on the employment characteristics and management potential scales than the able-bodied applicant. Mean scores on the Attitudes Toward Disabled Persons Scale were also higher for all depictions of physical conhtion than published norms indicate. This group of employers appeared to be positively oriented toward people with disabilities.
Personnel literature suggests that many interviewers make their selections of employees during the first four minutes of an interview (Hatfield & Gatewood, 1978). If so, then predictions of future employment behavior are likely to be formed largely on the basis of nonverbal cues, particularly physical appearance. Johnson and Roach-Higgins (1987) concluded that "identifiable categories of physical appearance cues can be classified as appropriate or nonappropriate for certain interactional situations" (p. 2) and rhat these categories are used as a basis to assign traits to applicants. The decision to hire or not to hire is then based on the impression formed from the assignment of these traits. Unfortunately, this emphasis on physical appearance may place individuals with physical disabilities at a relative disadvantage during a job interview. Most people learn to evaluate others along the dimensions of difference and physical attractiveness at a very early age (Berschied & Walster, 1974). Numerous authors have suggested that individuals with physical disabilities are often perceived as different in appearance from societal norms. This difference may lead to strained interaction, the formation of negative attitudes, and job discrimination (Bowe, 1980; Livneh, 1982; Parker & Hansen, 1981; Perry & Apostal, 1986; Wright, 1983). Research indicates that, in general, employers' attitudes are based on the same stereotypes as those of the general public (Parker & Hansen, 1981). Results regarding the nature of attitudes have been highly inconsistent, how-
'Send correspondence to Lisa A. Christman, 308B Spidle Hall, Auburn University, AL 36849.
468
L. A. CHRISTMAN & B. L. SLATEN
ever (Chubon, 1982; Cole & Bragman, 1985). Some studies indicate that negative attitudes among various groups are manifest in discriminatory and prejudicial behavior toward people with disabilities (e.g., Bowman, 1987; Cole & Bragman, 1985; Harasymiw, Horne, & Lewis, 1976; Wright, 1983). Other studies show that attitudes tend to be favorable (e.g., Comer & Pihavin, 1975; Jaffe, 1967; Kent, Cartwright, & Ossorio, 1984; Perry & Apostal, 1986). Bowman's (1987) research indicated that attitudes toward aLI people with disabihties tended to be more positive when the situation was not intimate (such as a job interview). Furthermore, Chubon (1982) stated that, while attitudes toward people with disabilities may vary, research has yet to indicate that these differences are of sufficient magnitude to be of significance. In Chubon's (1982) review of the literature also no studies were found which assessed the extent to which attitudes must be negative to be detrimental. Even the few studies which suggest the existence of negative attitudes provide no basis for assuming they are of sufficient intensity to affect behavior. What seems more important than simply evaluating positive or negative attitudes is examining the effect attitudes might have on the impressions individuals form about people with disabilities and their subsequent overt behavior toward them. This preliminary research examined the relationship between employers' expressed attitudes toward people with disabilities and their impressions of the employment potential and recommendations for the hiring of female job applicants in a simulated interview.
Sample To generalize findings to the primary environments in which people with disabilities may be working, a list of organizations including industrial firms, health and education facilities, and businesses in several cities in Lllinois was compiled. Twenty-five organizations including 9 manufacturing companies, 3 universities, 2 hospitals, and 12 sales, marketing, and research firms were contacted at random and managerial personnel were asked to participate if they indicated that they were involved in hiring decisions. The participants were 120 people who interview prospective employees as part of their job responsibilities. Fifty-eight of the participants were men and 62 were women. They ranged in age from 25 to 60 years and all had at least two years of college. Twenty-four subjects were working in industry, 20 in health and education, and 76 in business.
Experimental Deszgn The independent variable manipulated was physicaI condition. Three depictions of physical condition were specified for the following reasons. An applicant with no visible physical disability was chosen as a control. An ap-
DISABILITY AND JUDGMENTS OF EMPLOYMENT POTENTIAL
469
plicant on crutches with no cast was chosen as an example of a moderate physical impairment that could convey the impression that the disability might be either temporary or permanent. An applicant in a wheelchair was chosen to represent a paraplegic with a permanent, obvious physical disability that may have negative social connotations.
Development of the Stimulus Tapes Videotape was chosen as the medium to present the stimulus because it allowed the researchers to convey more cues than could be obtained through photographs or slides. During production, camera angles, facial expressions, and physical movements were controlled. Although the videotapes were recorded without sound, a script was used so that each of the segments was identical to all others except for the manipulation of the independent variable. Showing time for each videotaped segment was limited to two minutes because past personnel research indicates that interviewers make their selections during the first four minutes of an interview (Hatfield & Gatewood, 1978). AU videotaped segments were shown in black and white. Dependent Measures Part I contained a list of 22 adjectives that describe personal traits thought to influence employment potential. Subjects were asked to respond on a nine-point response scale with one being least and nine being most characteristic of the applicant. This list of adjectives, found in Table 1, was derived from four studies on impression formation: Rucker, McGee, Hopkins, Harrison, and Utts (1985), Forsythe, Drake, and Hogan (1985), Ericksen and Sirgy (1985), and Hake1 and Schuh (1971). To simplify analysis, the 22 employment characteristics were subjected to factorial analysis. The commercial program, Statistical Analysis System, was used to analyze the data (SAS Institute, Inc., 1986). A principal components factorial analysis with varimax rotation yielded four factors with eigenvalues greater than one (Table 1). An eigenvalue represents the amount of variance accounted for by each factor (Rummel, 1967). The highest loading of characteristics on Factor 1 were labeled "personality," Factor 2 characteristics were called "power," Factor 3 characteristics were called
O Perceptual and Motor Skills 1991
ATTITUDES TOWARD PEOPLE WITH DISABILITIES AND JUDGMENTS OF EMPLOYMENT POTENTIAL ' LISA A. CHRISTMAN AND B. LEWIS SLATEN Consumer A h i r s Department Aubrrrn Universify Summary.-The relationship between employers' expressed attitudes toward people with disabilities and their impressions of the employment potential of female job applicants was investigated. 120 subjects viewed videotapes of a simulated interview situation which included either an able-bodied applicant, one on crutches, or one in a wheelchair. The dependent measures included a scale for employment characteristics and management potential and the Attitudes Toward Disabled Persons Scale. Analysis of variance showed the applicants depicted as disabled were rated higher on the employment characteristics and management potential scales than the able-bodied applicant. Mean scores on the Attitudes Toward Disabled Persons Scale were also higher for all depictions of physical conhtion than published norms indicate. This group of employers appeared to be positively oriented toward people with disabilities.
Personnel literature suggests that many interviewers make their selections of employees during the first four minutes of an interview (Hatfield & Gatewood, 1978). If so, then predictions of future employment behavior are likely to be formed largely on the basis of nonverbal cues, particularly physical appearance. Johnson and Roach-Higgins (1987) concluded that "identifiable categories of physical appearance cues can be classified as appropriate or nonappropriate for certain interactional situations" (p. 2) and rhat these categories are used as a basis to assign traits to applicants. The decision to hire or not to hire is then based on the impression formed from the assignment of these traits. Unfortunately, this emphasis on physical appearance may place individuals with physical disabilities at a relative disadvantage during a job interview. Most people learn to evaluate others along the dimensions of difference and physical attractiveness at a very early age (Berschied & Walster, 1974). Numerous authors have suggested that individuals with physical disabilities are often perceived as different in appearance from societal norms. This difference may lead to strained interaction, the formation of negative attitudes, and job discrimination (Bowe, 1980; Livneh, 1982; Parker & Hansen, 1981; Perry & Apostal, 1986; Wright, 1983). Research indicates that, in general, employers' attitudes are based on the same stereotypes as those of the general public (Parker & Hansen, 1981). Results regarding the nature of attitudes have been highly inconsistent, how-
'Send correspondence to Lisa A. Christman, 308B Spidle Hall, Auburn University, AL 36849.
468
L. A. CHRISTMAN & B. L. SLATEN
ever (Chubon, 1982; Cole & Bragman, 1985). Some studies indicate that negative attitudes among various groups are manifest in discriminatory and prejudicial behavior toward people with disabilities (e.g., Bowman, 1987; Cole & Bragman, 1985; Harasymiw, Horne, & Lewis, 1976; Wright, 1983). Other studies show that attitudes tend to be favorable (e.g., Comer & Pihavin, 1975; Jaffe, 1967; Kent, Cartwright, & Ossorio, 1984; Perry & Apostal, 1986). Bowman's (1987) research indicated that attitudes toward aLI people with disabihties tended to be more positive when the situation was not intimate (such as a job interview). Furthermore, Chubon (1982) stated that, while attitudes toward people with disabilities may vary, research has yet to indicate that these differences are of sufficient magnitude to be of significance. In Chubon's (1982) review of the literature also no studies were found which assessed the extent to which attitudes must be negative to be detrimental. Even the few studies which suggest the existence of negative attitudes provide no basis for assuming they are of sufficient intensity to affect behavior. What seems more important than simply evaluating positive or negative attitudes is examining the effect attitudes might have on the impressions individuals form about people with disabilities and their subsequent overt behavior toward them. This preliminary research examined the relationship between employers' expressed attitudes toward people with disabilities and their impressions of the employment potential and recommendations for the hiring of female job applicants in a simulated interview.
Sample To generalize findings to the primary environments in which people with disabilities may be working, a list of organizations including industrial firms, health and education facilities, and businesses in several cities in Lllinois was compiled. Twenty-five organizations including 9 manufacturing companies, 3 universities, 2 hospitals, and 12 sales, marketing, and research firms were contacted at random and managerial personnel were asked to participate if they indicated that they were involved in hiring decisions. The participants were 120 people who interview prospective employees as part of their job responsibilities. Fifty-eight of the participants were men and 62 were women. They ranged in age from 25 to 60 years and all had at least two years of college. Twenty-four subjects were working in industry, 20 in health and education, and 76 in business.
Experimental Deszgn The independent variable manipulated was physicaI condition. Three depictions of physical condition were specified for the following reasons. An applicant with no visible physical disability was chosen as a control. An ap-
DISABILITY AND JUDGMENTS OF EMPLOYMENT POTENTIAL
469
plicant on crutches with no cast was chosen as an example of a moderate physical impairment that could convey the impression that the disability might be either temporary or permanent. An applicant in a wheelchair was chosen to represent a paraplegic with a permanent, obvious physical disability that may have negative social connotations.
Development of the Stimulus Tapes Videotape was chosen as the medium to present the stimulus because it allowed the researchers to convey more cues than could be obtained through photographs or slides. During production, camera angles, facial expressions, and physical movements were controlled. Although the videotapes were recorded without sound, a script was used so that each of the segments was identical to all others except for the manipulation of the independent variable. Showing time for each videotaped segment was limited to two minutes because past personnel research indicates that interviewers make their selections during the first four minutes of an interview (Hatfield & Gatewood, 1978). AU videotaped segments were shown in black and white. Dependent Measures Part I contained a list of 22 adjectives that describe personal traits thought to influence employment potential. Subjects were asked to respond on a nine-point response scale with one being least and nine being most characteristic of the applicant. This list of adjectives, found in Table 1, was derived from four studies on impression formation: Rucker, McGee, Hopkins, Harrison, and Utts (1985), Forsythe, Drake, and Hogan (1985), Ericksen and Sirgy (1985), and Hake1 and Schuh (1971). To simplify analysis, the 22 employment characteristics were subjected to factorial analysis. The commercial program, Statistical Analysis System, was used to analyze the data (SAS Institute, Inc., 1986). A principal components factorial analysis with varimax rotation yielded four factors with eigenvalues greater than one (Table 1). An eigenvalue represents the amount of variance accounted for by each factor (Rummel, 1967). The highest loading of characteristics on Factor 1 were labeled "personality," Factor 2 characteristics were called "power," Factor 3 characteristics were called
