Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 86, S74–S81, 2015 Copyright q SHAPE America ISSN 0270-1367 print/ISSN 2168-3824 online DOI: 10.1080/02701367.2015.1043229
Associations Between Attitudes Toward Physical Education and Aerobic Capacity in Hungarian High School Students Mo´nika Kaj Hungarian School Sport Federation
Pedro F. Saint-Maurice Iowa State University University of Minho
Istva´n Karsai University of Pe´cs
Zolta´n Vass Hungarian School Sport Federation
Tama´s Csa´nyi Hungarian School Sport Federation Eo¨tvo¨s Lora´nd University
Zolta´n Boronyai and La´szlo´ Re´ve´sz Hungarian School Sport Federation
Purpose: The purpose of this study was to create a physical education (PE) attitude scale and examine how it is associated with aerobic capacity (AC). Method: Participants (n ¼ 961, aged 15 –20 years) were randomly selected from 26 Hungarian high schools. AC was estimated from performance on the Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular and Endurance Run test, and the attitude scale had 31 items measured on a Likert scale that ranged from 1 to 5. Principal component analysis was used to examine the structure of the questionnaire while several 2-way analyses of variance and multiple linear regression (MLR) were computed to examine trends in AC and test the association between component scores obtained from the attitude scale and AC, respectively. Results: Five components were identified: health orientation in PE (C1), avoid failure in PE (C2), success orientation in PE (C3), attitude toward physical activity (C4), and cooperation and social experience in PE (C5). There was a statistically significant main effect for sex on C3 ( p , .05), C4 ( p , .001), and C5 ( p , .05) indicating that boys’ scores were higher than girls. The Sex £ Age interaction was also statistically significant ( p , .05) and follow-up comparisons revealed sex differences in C5 for 15-year-old participants. Girls showed statistically significant higher values than boys in C5 at the age of 16 years. MLR results revealed that component scores were significantly associated with AC ( p , .05). Statistically significant predictors included C1, C2, C3, and C4 for boys and C2 and C4 for girls. Conclusion: The 5-component scale seems to be suitable for measuring students’ attitudes toward PE. The
Correspondence should be addressed to Mo´nika Kaj, Hungarian School Sport Federation, Istva´nmezei utca 1-3, H-1146 Budapest, Hungary. E-mail: kaj. [email protected]
ASSOCIATION BETWEEN ATTITUDES AND AEROBIC CAPACITY
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design of the study does not allow for direct associations between attitudes and AC but suggests that these 2 might be related. Keywords: attitudes toward physical activity, physical fitness, youth
The interest in quality physical education (PE) programs has increased in the recent years due to global concerns regarding inadequate levels of physical activity (PA) among youth (Wiersma & Sherman, 2008). The promotion of PA during childhood is central to public health initiatives targeting childhood obesity (Strong et al., 2005), and schools have great potential to mediate such initiatives. However, youth opportunities to be active are often constrained to what the school PE curriculum can offer (Erwin, Stellino, Beets, Beighle, & Johnson, 2013). From a behavioral standpoint, children’s attitudes are considered to be a key element influencing participation in PA (Biddle & Mutrie, 2001; Hagger, Chatzisarantis, & Biddle, 2002; Solomon, 2003; Subramaniam & Silverman, 2007). The PE setting plays an important role in the shape of attitudes toward PA, and therefore, one of its primary goals should be to promote positive attitudes and to encourage lifetime PA (National Association for Sport and Physical Education, 2008). In Hungary, there was a global shift with the Public Act on Education in 2012 and National Core Curriculum in 2013. Daily PE was implemented at a national level, and standardized curriculums reinforcing PA for health were made available to enhance the quality of these programs (Csa´nyi et al., this issue). There is mixed evidence suggesting that students have negative attitudes toward PE, do not feel as motivated to participate in PA, and value PA less (Faulkner, Goodman, Adlaf, Irving, & Dwyer, 2007; Gao, Lodewyk, & Zhang, 2009). Variability in attitudes can be explained by a variety of components, but Luke and Sinclair (1991) identified the curriculum content to be the most influential component in the development of positive and negative attitudes toward PE. This relation was independent of sex or PE enrollment/ eligibility (Luke & Sinclair, 1991; Rice, 1988). The implications of activities promoted during PE in youth attitudes toward PA are complex and mediated/ moderated by different components (Azzarito & Solomon, 2005; Garrett, 2004; Pano & Markola, 2012). Trudeau and Shephard (2008) performed an extensive review in this domain and analyzed more than 1,850 studies from 1970 to 2003. They found that most children have positive attitudes toward PE and that these attitudes can have a positive influence on PA. Christodoulidis, Papaioannou, and Digelidis (2001) investigated the effect of a short-time intervention and found that students who were engaged in school-based intervention programs had more positive attitudes toward PA and spent more time in PA than their peers. This study examines the relation between attitudes toward PE and aerobic capacity, a proxy indicator of youth engagement in active behaviors (Dobbins, Husson, De Corby, & LaRocca,
2013; Ortega, Ruiz, Hurtig-Wennlo¨f, & Sjo¨stro¨m, 2008). The specific aims of the study were: (a) to create an attitude scale based on the response of high school students in Hungary, and (b) to examine the association between attitude scores obtained from the new scale and aerobic capacity (peak oxygen consumption [VO2peak]) measured by the Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run (PACER) test.
METHODS Participants Data were available from a total of 1,225 randomly selected high school students (out of the 2,602 students enrolled in the Hungarian National Youth Fitness Study initiative). More details are provided in the introductory article in this supplement (Csa´nyi et al., this issue). Table 1 shows the descriptive statistics of the study sample by age and gender. This study was approved by the ethics committee board at the Hungarian School Sport Federation and a signed consent form (by parent or legal guardian) was required to participate in the study.
Materials and Procedures Hungarian High School Questionnaire in PE Settings Attitude items were developed by the Hungarian School Sports Federation (HSSF) using standardized procedures. A selective committee of experts integrated in the HSSF
TABLE 1 Descriptive Statistics of the Study Sample (N ¼ 961)
Age (Years) 15 16 17 18 19þ
Height (cm)
Weight (kg)
Sex
n
M
SD
M
SD
Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls
97 86 127 100 151 99 119 71 71 40
174.7 164.3 176.5 163.4 177.6 164.4 177.6 164.8 176.6 164.0
7.1 6.1 6.6 6.6 7.5 6.5 7.3 6.7 6.2 7.1
65.8 57.0 70.0 59.7 72.7 59.3 72.2 60.4 73.6 58.3
12.5 9.6 15.2 12.4 15.4 9.6 12.3 11.7 14.2 8.6
Note. n ¼ number of participants in the study; M ¼ mean; SD ¼ standard deviation.
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(scientists and PE teachers) collected all relevant statements and questions developed by the HSSF to describe perceptions and attitudes toward PE and feelings about PA. Items were designed to capture health orientation, leisuretime PA, fitness education, and general future orientation related to PA, and they were scored using a 1-to-10 Likert scale (i.e., in increasing order of relevance/importance) by all committee members. Items with averaged scores greater than 7.0 were identified as being relevant indicators of the construct being assessed. The final battery included 31 items to create the Hungarian High School Questionnaire in PE Settings and a 1-to-5 Likert scale was used to represent the students’ agreement with the statements (1 ¼ strongly disagree to 5 ¼ strongly agree) indicated in Table 2. The PACER Test
validity of the PACER equation for Hungarian youth is available in another article in this supplement (SaintMaurice, Welk, Finn, & Kaj, this issue). Estimates of VO2peak were classified into the Fitnessgram fitness zones and participants’ scores were defined as being in the Healthy Fitness Zone, Needs Improvement zone, or Needs Improvement: Health Risk zone (Plowman & Meredith, 2014). The age- and sex-specific aerobic capacity thresholds for creating separate risk groups were identified using nationally representative growth percentiles (Welk, Laurson, Eisenmann, & Cureton, 2011) and have been tested in the Hungarian population. See more information in another article included in this supplement (Laurson, SaintMaurice, Karsai, & Csa´nyi, this issue).
Statistical Analyses
The PACER test is a 20-m shuttle run assessment that was designed to replicate a maximal aerobic capacity protocol. Participants are required to complete 20-m laps in a straight line within a predefined time interval. The time allowed to complete each lap is reduced at each minute until a maximum of 21 stages or volitional fatigue. Participants stop the test if they are not able to complete the 20-m lap for a second time within the time allowed. The number of laps completed can be converted to estimates of VO2peak using the most recent FITNESSGRAMw prediction equation. More information on the
The first set of analyses examined the measurement properties of the new questionnaire developed for this study. We first examined the internal consistency of the scale by computing the Cronbach’s alpha. The underlying structure of the scale was determined using principal component analysis with the Varimax rotation method. Components were deemed relevant if the eigenvalue was greater than 1.0. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) test was used to examine the factorability of the questionnaire. The second set of analyses examined age and sex patterns in each of the components obtained from the principal
TABLE 2 Items Representing Each of the Components of the Hungarian High School Questionnaire in PE Settings Component Code
Name of the Component
Items
C1
Health orientation/expectations of PE in terms of health
C2
Avoid failure in PE
C3
Success orientation in PE
C4
Attitude toward physical activity
C5
Cooperation and social experience in PE
† I like PE classes. † It is important to me to learn about the health-enhancing characteristics of physical activity during PE classes. † It is important to me to learn about healthy nutrition besides doing regular physical activities during PE classes. † I believe the PE teacher should tell us why PE classes are important for us. † It is important to me to feel during PE classes that physical activity is good for my well-being. † My PE teacher thinks I am good at PE. † If during PE classes I am selected in a team that cannot win, I do not make efforts. † During PE classes, I do not like team activities because I am afraid to spoil the game. † During PE classes, I try to find a position that allows me to withdraw from active roles in the game. † I like activities during PE classes where success depends on me. † During PE classes, I like to take part in team activities only if it is good for me. † During PE classes, I like to be in the winner team. † I believe that doing regular physical activity is important for my health. † I plan to do regular physical activity in the future to maintain my health. † I do physical activities also outside PE classes at school. † During PE classes, winning in team activities is not important but can improve positive feelings. † It is important for me to behave as a team even if we are losing.
Note. PE ¼ physical education.
ASSOCIATION BETWEEN ATTITUDES AND AEROBIC CAPACITY
component analysis using a two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA; Sex £ Age). Least square means were tested for multiple comparisons using Bonferroni adjustments. The third and final set of analyses examined the relation between predicted VO2peak obtained from the PACER test and participants’ scores on each of the components for attitude toward PE/PA identified in the scale. We used multiple linear regression analysis (MLR) with forward selection and with individual component scores as predictors. Variables were entered in the model in their order of their contribution to model fit and using p , .05. The predictive value of each component was determined based on beta weights and R 2. The regression analyses were computed separately for boys and girls. Statistical significance was set at p , .05 and all analyses were conducted using IBM Statistical Package for the Social Sciences Statistics for Windows 20.0 (IBM Corp., Armonk, NY).
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According to the results of the ANOVA, there was a significant main effect for sex on success orientation in PE, F(1, 961) ¼ 5.014, p , .05, attitude toward PA, F(1, 961) ¼ 17.351, p , .05, and cooperation and social experience in PE, F(1, 961) ¼ 17.081, p , .05. There was no statistically significant main effect for age in any of the components ( p . .05). There was a significant interaction between age and sex for cooperation and social experience in PE, F(4, 961) ¼ 2.761, p , .05. Boys’ scores on success
RESULTS Altogether, 961 students (565 boys, 58.8%, aged 17.5 ^ 1.43 years; and 396 girls, 41.2%, aged 17.2 ^ 1.4 years; see Table 1) completed the newly developed questionnaire: Hungarian High School Questionnaire in PE Settings and performed the PACER test. Underlying Properties of the Hungarian High School Questionnaire in PE Settings All correlations among the variable pairs were less than .6, which indicated no multicollinearity existed, so these 31 items were included when calculating the composite score. The internal consistency of the developed questionnaire was good (Cronbach’s alpha ¼ .825) and the various indicators of factorability were acceptable (KMO ¼ .833, p , .05). Five components with an eigenvalue of greater than 1.0 were found and labeled as indicative: Component 1 (C1), health-orientation/expectations of PE in terms of health; Component 2 (C2), avoid failure in PE; Component 3 (C3), success orientation in PE; Component 4 (C4), attitude toward PA; and Component 5 (C5), cooperation and social experience in PE. Table 2 shows the items belonging to the different components. The five extracted components together explained 57.6% of the variance in attitude scores (C1, 15.16%; C2, 12.18%; C3, 11.89%; C4, 9.54%; C5, 8.8%).
FIGURE 1 Mean scores and standard deviations in the “health orientation in PE” component representing age and sex.
Sex and Age Patterns in Hungarian High School Questionnaire in PE Settings Scores The mean component scores (sum of scores of all items in the component/number of items in the component) are represented by age and sex in Figures 1 through 5.
FIGURE 2 Mean scores and standard deviations in the “avoid failure in PE” component representing age and sex.
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orientation in PE for 15-year-old participants, t (181) ¼ 1.909 and p , .05, and attitude toward PA for 19year-old participants were significantly higher than girls’ scores for these component, t(109) ¼ 3.607, p , .05. PACER Versus Hungarian High School Questionnaire in PE Settings The mean values of the predicted VO2peak by age and sex are presented in Table 3. According to the ANOVA
model, there was a significant main effect for age, F(4, 955) ¼ 10.542, p , .05, and sex, F(4, 955) ¼ 237.245, p , .05, indicating that overall, younger participants had higher VO2peak than their older peers. The same results also indicated that VO2peak was consistently higher in boys and that boys showed significantly higher values of VO2peak at all ages when compared with girls ( p , .05). MLR revealed that a model with questionnaire scores together was able to explain 14.2% of the variance in VO2peak scores in boys, F(4, 557) ¼ 22.978, p , .05, R 2 ¼ .142, and 12% of the variance in girls, F(2, 389) ¼ 26.402, p , .05, R 2 ¼ .120. The statistically relevant components (i.e., with statistically significant beta weights) were C4 (R 2 ¼ .082), C2 (R 2 ¼ .041), C3 (R 2 ¼ .015), and C1 (R 2 ¼ .008) for boys. In girls, statistically relevant factors were limited to C4 (R 2 ¼ .110) and C2 (R 2 ¼ .009; Table 4).
DISCUSSION
FIGURE 3 Mean scores and standard deviations in the “success orientation in PE” component representing age and sex.
FIGURE 4 Mean scores and standard deviations in the “attitude toward physical activity” component representing age and sex. ***Indicates significant sex differences in the age group ( p , .001).
This study describes a scale for attitudes toward PE developed for Hungarian adolescents and how derived scores from selected components relate to aerobic capacity. The national efforts in Hungary to improve PE programming led to the development of a national youth fitness battery that will soon be implemented throughout the country. The impact of this initiative can be determined in the future by examining how students perceive the experiences offered in PE. The attitude scale
FIGURE 5 Mean scores and standard deviations in the “cooperation and social experience in PE” component representing age and sex. *Indicates significant sex differences in the age groups (**p , .01, ***p , .001).
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TABLE 3 Marginal Means for Relative Peak Oxygen Uptake (ml*kg21*min21) by Age and Sex Predicted From PACER Age (Years) 15 # Sex Boys Girls
16 #
17 #
18 #
19 #
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
48.1 39.3
0.7 0.8
44.6* 37.7
0.7 0.7
44.7 37.0
0.6 0.7
44.3 36.5
0.7 0.9
41.9 34.2
0.9 1.2
Note. M ¼ mean; SD ¼ standard deviation. #Indicates statistically significant differences between boys and girls within the same age group ( p , .05). *Indicates statistically significant differences when compared with the preceding age group ( p , .05).
TABLE 4 Multiple Linear Regression Coefficients Boys Predictor Variable C1 C2 C3 C4 C5
Girls
Beta
SE
p Value
Beta
SE
p Value
1.110 21.786 1.164 1.673 20.065
.562 .338 .462 .443 .384
.049 ,.001 .012 ,.001 .124
0.094 20.583 0.025 1.808 0.076
.419 .298 .331 .273 .294
.083 .045 .609 ,.001 .127
Note. Dependent variable: VO2peak in ml*kg 21*min 21; C1 ¼ healthorientation/expectations of PE in terms of health; C2 ¼ avoid failure in PE; C3 ¼ success orientation in PE; C4 ¼ attitude toward physical activity; C5 ¼ cooperation and social experience in PE.
developed in this study can be a valuable tool for this purpose but needs further testing of its properties. We used performance in a long-distance field test to provide a preliminary indicator of the validity of the scale. Thus, the design of the study is still limited to observed associations but shows promise for additional research. More detail about the findings is described in the following paragraphs. Based on the responses of 961 high school students, the newly developed scale shows a reliable component structure with five components that characterize the students’ behavior, characteristics, and attitudes toward PE and active lifestyle. Health orientation/expectations of PE in terms of component scores in health, avoiding failure in PE, success orientation in PE, attitude toward PA, and cooperation and social experience in PE varied by sex, and there were no age differences in our sample. When estimates of aerobic capacity were regressed on the scores obtained from the various attitude components, attitude toward PA, avoiding failure in PE, success orientation in PE, and health orientation in PE were associated with aerobic capacity among the boys, but only attitudes toward PA and avoiding failure in PE were associated with aerobic
capacity in girls. The attitudes toward PA component explained the highest amount of variability (approximately 10%) of predicted VO2peak. The mean scores that characterize the students’ attitudes toward PA reveal that boys have more favorable attitudes toward PA and PE than girls. These findings are consistent with the results from Koca and Demirhan (2004), Olafson (2002), and Sa¨fvenbom, Haugen, and Bulie (2014) and might be explained with the findings that traditional PE curricula tend to favor competitive activities (i.e., sportoriented environment) and therefore make PA more attractive for boys (Talbot, 1990). Attitudes toward PA can be improved if PE classes are enjoyable and consist of challenging tasks while generating fun. Senne, Rowe, Boswell, Decker, and Douglas (2009) found higher levels of PA in activity-based lesson contexts of fitness activities, skill activity, and game play. Colley, Berman, and Van Millingen (2005) and Koca, Asc i, and Demirhan (2005) also identified attitude toward PA components as being important components. Additionally, the content of PE, branch of sport, stereotypes of activities, and tradition were other influencing components in attitudes and participation in PE. Our results suggest that boys and girls have different behavior characteristics and attitudes toward PE. Our study also suggests that different attitude components were associated with the aerobic capacity level in boys and girls; however, these findings are limited to the crosssectional design of our study and certainly do not imply causation.
WHAT DOES THIS ARTICLE ADD? This study examined the importance of attitudes toward PE. The importance that boys and girls attribute to PE classes should be used to engage these subgroups in activity during this period. Our results suggest that these attitudes can impact students’ physical fitness—namely,
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aerobic capacity. According to our study, the association with attitudes toward PE varied between boys and girls. The attitude toward PA and health orientation components were common factors among boys and girls, while success orientation and avoiding failure were two additional predictors of aerobic capacity in boys. Our study did not show any other relevant attitudes in girls. The results of this study can be used to promote awareness within the PE and public health community and open the debate for alternative PE curricula. PE classes that are inclusive of a variety of activities and increase the opportunities for success are likely to impact students’ activity levels and promote positive experiences. Our study provides a “snapshot” of related factors known to impact individuals’ behavior in a specific setting (i.e., PE); however, more research is needed to determine to what extent PE training programs that include behavior change strategies can be implemented on a national scale. ORCID Pedro F. Saint-Maurice http://orcid.org/0000-0002-8752-2340 Tama´s Csa´nyi http://orcid.org/0000-0003-2037-9217
REFERENCES Azzarito, L., & Solomon, M. A. (2005). A reconceptualization of physical education: The intersection of gender/race/social class. Sport, Education and Society, 10, 25 –47. Biddle, S. J. H., & Mutrie, N. (2001). Psychology of physical activity: Determinants, well-being and interventions. New York, NY: Routledge. Christodoulidis, T., Papaioannou, A., & Digelidis, N. (2001). Motivational climate and attitudes towards exercise in Greek senior high school: A year-long intervention. European Journal of Sport Sciences, 1(4), 228–241. Colley, A., Berman, E., & Van Millingen, L. (2005). Age and gender differences in young people’s perceptions of sport participants. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 35, 1440–1454. Csa´nyi, T., Finn, K. J., Welk, G. J., Zhu, W., Karsai, I., Iha´sz, F., . . . Molna´r, L. (this issue). Overview of the Hungarian National Youth Fitness Study. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 86(Suppl. 1). Dobbins, M., Husson, H., De Corby, K., & LaRocca, R. L. (2013). Schoolbased physical activity programs for promoting physical activity and fitness in children and adolescents aged 6 to 18. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 2, CD007651. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD007651. pub2 Erwin, H. E., Stellino, M. B., Beets, M. W., Beighle, A., & Johnson, C. E. (2013). Physical education lesson content and teacher style and elementary students’ motivation and physical activity levels. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 32, 321–334. Faulkner, G., Goodman, J., Adlaf, E., Irving, H., & Dwyer, J. (2007). Participation in high school physical education—Ontario, Canada (1999–2005). Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 56, 52–54.
Gao, Z., Lodewyk, K., & Zhang, T. (2009). The role of self-efficacy and incentives in secondary school students’ intentions and effort in physical education. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 28, 3–20. Garrett, R. (2004). Negotiating a physical identity: Girls, bodies and physical education. Sport, Education and Society, 9, 223–237. Hagger, M. S., Chatzisarantis, N. L., & Biddle, J. H. (2002). A meta-analytic review of the theories of reasoned action and planned behavior in physical activity: Predictive validity and the contribution of additional variables. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 24, 3–32. Koca, C., Asc i, F. H., & Demirhan, G. (2005). Attitudes toward physical education and class preferences of Turkish adolescents in terms of school gender composition. Adolescence, 40(158), 365 –375. Koca, C., & Demirhan, G. (2004). An examination of high school students’ attitudes toward physical education with regard to sex and sport participation. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 98, 754–758. Laurson, K. R., Saint-Maurice, P. F., Karsai, I., & Csa´nyi, T. (this issue). Cross-validation of FITNESSGRAMw health-related fitness standards in Hungarian youth. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 86(Suppl. 1). Luke, M. D., & Sinclair, G. D. (1991). Gender differences in adolescents’ attitudes toward physical education. Journal of Teaching Physical Education, 11, 31–46. National Association for Sport and Physical Education. (2008). Comprehensive school physical activity programs. Reston, VA: Author. Olafson, L. (2002). ‘I hate phys. ed.’: Adolescent girls talk about physical education. The Physical Educator, 59, 67– 74. Ortega, F. B., Ruiz, J. R., Hurtig-Wennlo¨f, A., & Sjo¨stro¨m, M. (2008). Physically active adolescents are more likely to have a healthier cardiovascular fitness level independently of their adiposity status. The European Youth Heart Study. Revista Espan˜ola de Cardiologı´a, 61, 123–129. Pano, G., & Markola, L. (2012). 14 – 18 years old children attitudes, perception and motivation towards extra-curricular physical activity and sport. Journal of Human Sport and Exercise, 7, 51–66. Plowman, S., & Meredith, M. (2014). Fitnessgram/Activitygram reference guide (4th ed.). Dallas, TX: Cooper Institute. Rice, P. L. (1988). Attitudes of high school students toward physical education activities, teachers and personal health. The Physical Educator, 45, 94 –99. Saint-Maurice, P. F., Welk, G. J., Finn, K. J., & Kaj, M. (this issue). Crossvalidation of a PACER prediction equation for assessing aerobic capacity in Hungarian youth. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 86(Suppl. 1). Sa¨fvenbom, R., Haugen, T., & Bulie, M. (2014). Attitudes toward and motivation for PE. Who collects the benefits of the subject? Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy, Advance online publication. doi:10. 1080/17408989.2014.892063 Senne, T., Rowe, D., Boswell, B., Decker, J., & Douglas, S. (2009). Factors associated with adolescent physical activity during middle school physical education: A one-year case study. European Physical Education Review, 15, 295–314. Solomon, M. A. (2003). Student issues in physical education classes: Attitudes, cognition, and motivation. In S. J. Silverman & C. D. Ennis (Eds.), Student learning in physical education: Applying research to enhance instruction (pp. 147 –163). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Strong, W. B., Malina, R. M., Blimkie, C. J. R., Daniels, S. R., Dishman, R. K., Gutin, B., & . . . Trudeau, F. (2005). Evidence based physical activity for school-age youth. Journal of Pediatrics, 146, 732–737.
ASSOCIATION BETWEEN ATTITUDES AND AEROBIC CAPACITY Subramaniam, P. R., & Silverman, S. (2007). Middle school students’ attitudes towards physical education. Teaching and Teacher Education, 23, 602–611. Talbot, M. (1990). Equal opportunities and physical education. In N. Armstrong (Ed.), New directions in physical education (pp. 101–120). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Trudeau, F., & Shephard, R. J. (2008). Contribution of school programmes to physical activity levels and attitudes in children and adults. Sports Medicine, 35, 89–105.
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Associations Between Attitudes Toward Physical Education and Aerobic Capacity in Hungarian High School Students Mo´nika Kaj Hungarian School Sport Federation
Pedro F. Saint-Maurice Iowa State University University of Minho
Istva´n Karsai University of Pe´cs
Zolta´n Vass Hungarian School Sport Federation
Tama´s Csa´nyi Hungarian School Sport Federation Eo¨tvo¨s Lora´nd University
Zolta´n Boronyai and La´szlo´ Re´ve´sz Hungarian School Sport Federation
Purpose: The purpose of this study was to create a physical education (PE) attitude scale and examine how it is associated with aerobic capacity (AC). Method: Participants (n ¼ 961, aged 15 –20 years) were randomly selected from 26 Hungarian high schools. AC was estimated from performance on the Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular and Endurance Run test, and the attitude scale had 31 items measured on a Likert scale that ranged from 1 to 5. Principal component analysis was used to examine the structure of the questionnaire while several 2-way analyses of variance and multiple linear regression (MLR) were computed to examine trends in AC and test the association between component scores obtained from the attitude scale and AC, respectively. Results: Five components were identified: health orientation in PE (C1), avoid failure in PE (C2), success orientation in PE (C3), attitude toward physical activity (C4), and cooperation and social experience in PE (C5). There was a statistically significant main effect for sex on C3 ( p , .05), C4 ( p , .001), and C5 ( p , .05) indicating that boys’ scores were higher than girls. The Sex £ Age interaction was also statistically significant ( p , .05) and follow-up comparisons revealed sex differences in C5 for 15-year-old participants. Girls showed statistically significant higher values than boys in C5 at the age of 16 years. MLR results revealed that component scores were significantly associated with AC ( p , .05). Statistically significant predictors included C1, C2, C3, and C4 for boys and C2 and C4 for girls. Conclusion: The 5-component scale seems to be suitable for measuring students’ attitudes toward PE. The
Correspondence should be addressed to Mo´nika Kaj, Hungarian School Sport Federation, Istva´nmezei utca 1-3, H-1146 Budapest, Hungary. E-mail: kaj. [email protected]
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design of the study does not allow for direct associations between attitudes and AC but suggests that these 2 might be related. Keywords: attitudes toward physical activity, physical fitness, youth
The interest in quality physical education (PE) programs has increased in the recent years due to global concerns regarding inadequate levels of physical activity (PA) among youth (Wiersma & Sherman, 2008). The promotion of PA during childhood is central to public health initiatives targeting childhood obesity (Strong et al., 2005), and schools have great potential to mediate such initiatives. However, youth opportunities to be active are often constrained to what the school PE curriculum can offer (Erwin, Stellino, Beets, Beighle, & Johnson, 2013). From a behavioral standpoint, children’s attitudes are considered to be a key element influencing participation in PA (Biddle & Mutrie, 2001; Hagger, Chatzisarantis, & Biddle, 2002; Solomon, 2003; Subramaniam & Silverman, 2007). The PE setting plays an important role in the shape of attitudes toward PA, and therefore, one of its primary goals should be to promote positive attitudes and to encourage lifetime PA (National Association for Sport and Physical Education, 2008). In Hungary, there was a global shift with the Public Act on Education in 2012 and National Core Curriculum in 2013. Daily PE was implemented at a national level, and standardized curriculums reinforcing PA for health were made available to enhance the quality of these programs (Csa´nyi et al., this issue). There is mixed evidence suggesting that students have negative attitudes toward PE, do not feel as motivated to participate in PA, and value PA less (Faulkner, Goodman, Adlaf, Irving, & Dwyer, 2007; Gao, Lodewyk, & Zhang, 2009). Variability in attitudes can be explained by a variety of components, but Luke and Sinclair (1991) identified the curriculum content to be the most influential component in the development of positive and negative attitudes toward PE. This relation was independent of sex or PE enrollment/ eligibility (Luke & Sinclair, 1991; Rice, 1988). The implications of activities promoted during PE in youth attitudes toward PA are complex and mediated/ moderated by different components (Azzarito & Solomon, 2005; Garrett, 2004; Pano & Markola, 2012). Trudeau and Shephard (2008) performed an extensive review in this domain and analyzed more than 1,850 studies from 1970 to 2003. They found that most children have positive attitudes toward PE and that these attitudes can have a positive influence on PA. Christodoulidis, Papaioannou, and Digelidis (2001) investigated the effect of a short-time intervention and found that students who were engaged in school-based intervention programs had more positive attitudes toward PA and spent more time in PA than their peers. This study examines the relation between attitudes toward PE and aerobic capacity, a proxy indicator of youth engagement in active behaviors (Dobbins, Husson, De Corby, & LaRocca,
2013; Ortega, Ruiz, Hurtig-Wennlo¨f, & Sjo¨stro¨m, 2008). The specific aims of the study were: (a) to create an attitude scale based on the response of high school students in Hungary, and (b) to examine the association between attitude scores obtained from the new scale and aerobic capacity (peak oxygen consumption [VO2peak]) measured by the Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run (PACER) test.
METHODS Participants Data were available from a total of 1,225 randomly selected high school students (out of the 2,602 students enrolled in the Hungarian National Youth Fitness Study initiative). More details are provided in the introductory article in this supplement (Csa´nyi et al., this issue). Table 1 shows the descriptive statistics of the study sample by age and gender. This study was approved by the ethics committee board at the Hungarian School Sport Federation and a signed consent form (by parent or legal guardian) was required to participate in the study.
Materials and Procedures Hungarian High School Questionnaire in PE Settings Attitude items were developed by the Hungarian School Sports Federation (HSSF) using standardized procedures. A selective committee of experts integrated in the HSSF
TABLE 1 Descriptive Statistics of the Study Sample (N ¼ 961)
Age (Years) 15 16 17 18 19þ
Height (cm)
Weight (kg)
Sex
n
M
SD
M
SD
Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls
97 86 127 100 151 99 119 71 71 40
174.7 164.3 176.5 163.4 177.6 164.4 177.6 164.8 176.6 164.0
7.1 6.1 6.6 6.6 7.5 6.5 7.3 6.7 6.2 7.1
65.8 57.0 70.0 59.7 72.7 59.3 72.2 60.4 73.6 58.3
12.5 9.6 15.2 12.4 15.4 9.6 12.3 11.7 14.2 8.6
Note. n ¼ number of participants in the study; M ¼ mean; SD ¼ standard deviation.
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(scientists and PE teachers) collected all relevant statements and questions developed by the HSSF to describe perceptions and attitudes toward PE and feelings about PA. Items were designed to capture health orientation, leisuretime PA, fitness education, and general future orientation related to PA, and they were scored using a 1-to-10 Likert scale (i.e., in increasing order of relevance/importance) by all committee members. Items with averaged scores greater than 7.0 were identified as being relevant indicators of the construct being assessed. The final battery included 31 items to create the Hungarian High School Questionnaire in PE Settings and a 1-to-5 Likert scale was used to represent the students’ agreement with the statements (1 ¼ strongly disagree to 5 ¼ strongly agree) indicated in Table 2. The PACER Test
validity of the PACER equation for Hungarian youth is available in another article in this supplement (SaintMaurice, Welk, Finn, & Kaj, this issue). Estimates of VO2peak were classified into the Fitnessgram fitness zones and participants’ scores were defined as being in the Healthy Fitness Zone, Needs Improvement zone, or Needs Improvement: Health Risk zone (Plowman & Meredith, 2014). The age- and sex-specific aerobic capacity thresholds for creating separate risk groups were identified using nationally representative growth percentiles (Welk, Laurson, Eisenmann, & Cureton, 2011) and have been tested in the Hungarian population. See more information in another article included in this supplement (Laurson, SaintMaurice, Karsai, & Csa´nyi, this issue).
Statistical Analyses
The PACER test is a 20-m shuttle run assessment that was designed to replicate a maximal aerobic capacity protocol. Participants are required to complete 20-m laps in a straight line within a predefined time interval. The time allowed to complete each lap is reduced at each minute until a maximum of 21 stages or volitional fatigue. Participants stop the test if they are not able to complete the 20-m lap for a second time within the time allowed. The number of laps completed can be converted to estimates of VO2peak using the most recent FITNESSGRAMw prediction equation. More information on the
The first set of analyses examined the measurement properties of the new questionnaire developed for this study. We first examined the internal consistency of the scale by computing the Cronbach’s alpha. The underlying structure of the scale was determined using principal component analysis with the Varimax rotation method. Components were deemed relevant if the eigenvalue was greater than 1.0. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) test was used to examine the factorability of the questionnaire. The second set of analyses examined age and sex patterns in each of the components obtained from the principal
TABLE 2 Items Representing Each of the Components of the Hungarian High School Questionnaire in PE Settings Component Code
Name of the Component
Items
C1
Health orientation/expectations of PE in terms of health
C2
Avoid failure in PE
C3
Success orientation in PE
C4
Attitude toward physical activity
C5
Cooperation and social experience in PE
† I like PE classes. † It is important to me to learn about the health-enhancing characteristics of physical activity during PE classes. † It is important to me to learn about healthy nutrition besides doing regular physical activities during PE classes. † I believe the PE teacher should tell us why PE classes are important for us. † It is important to me to feel during PE classes that physical activity is good for my well-being. † My PE teacher thinks I am good at PE. † If during PE classes I am selected in a team that cannot win, I do not make efforts. † During PE classes, I do not like team activities because I am afraid to spoil the game. † During PE classes, I try to find a position that allows me to withdraw from active roles in the game. † I like activities during PE classes where success depends on me. † During PE classes, I like to take part in team activities only if it is good for me. † During PE classes, I like to be in the winner team. † I believe that doing regular physical activity is important for my health. † I plan to do regular physical activity in the future to maintain my health. † I do physical activities also outside PE classes at school. † During PE classes, winning in team activities is not important but can improve positive feelings. † It is important for me to behave as a team even if we are losing.
Note. PE ¼ physical education.
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component analysis using a two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA; Sex £ Age). Least square means were tested for multiple comparisons using Bonferroni adjustments. The third and final set of analyses examined the relation between predicted VO2peak obtained from the PACER test and participants’ scores on each of the components for attitude toward PE/PA identified in the scale. We used multiple linear regression analysis (MLR) with forward selection and with individual component scores as predictors. Variables were entered in the model in their order of their contribution to model fit and using p , .05. The predictive value of each component was determined based on beta weights and R 2. The regression analyses were computed separately for boys and girls. Statistical significance was set at p , .05 and all analyses were conducted using IBM Statistical Package for the Social Sciences Statistics for Windows 20.0 (IBM Corp., Armonk, NY).
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According to the results of the ANOVA, there was a significant main effect for sex on success orientation in PE, F(1, 961) ¼ 5.014, p , .05, attitude toward PA, F(1, 961) ¼ 17.351, p , .05, and cooperation and social experience in PE, F(1, 961) ¼ 17.081, p , .05. There was no statistically significant main effect for age in any of the components ( p . .05). There was a significant interaction between age and sex for cooperation and social experience in PE, F(4, 961) ¼ 2.761, p , .05. Boys’ scores on success
RESULTS Altogether, 961 students (565 boys, 58.8%, aged 17.5 ^ 1.43 years; and 396 girls, 41.2%, aged 17.2 ^ 1.4 years; see Table 1) completed the newly developed questionnaire: Hungarian High School Questionnaire in PE Settings and performed the PACER test. Underlying Properties of the Hungarian High School Questionnaire in PE Settings All correlations among the variable pairs were less than .6, which indicated no multicollinearity existed, so these 31 items were included when calculating the composite score. The internal consistency of the developed questionnaire was good (Cronbach’s alpha ¼ .825) and the various indicators of factorability were acceptable (KMO ¼ .833, p , .05). Five components with an eigenvalue of greater than 1.0 were found and labeled as indicative: Component 1 (C1), health-orientation/expectations of PE in terms of health; Component 2 (C2), avoid failure in PE; Component 3 (C3), success orientation in PE; Component 4 (C4), attitude toward PA; and Component 5 (C5), cooperation and social experience in PE. Table 2 shows the items belonging to the different components. The five extracted components together explained 57.6% of the variance in attitude scores (C1, 15.16%; C2, 12.18%; C3, 11.89%; C4, 9.54%; C5, 8.8%).
FIGURE 1 Mean scores and standard deviations in the “health orientation in PE” component representing age and sex.
Sex and Age Patterns in Hungarian High School Questionnaire in PE Settings Scores The mean component scores (sum of scores of all items in the component/number of items in the component) are represented by age and sex in Figures 1 through 5.
FIGURE 2 Mean scores and standard deviations in the “avoid failure in PE” component representing age and sex.
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orientation in PE for 15-year-old participants, t (181) ¼ 1.909 and p , .05, and attitude toward PA for 19year-old participants were significantly higher than girls’ scores for these component, t(109) ¼ 3.607, p , .05. PACER Versus Hungarian High School Questionnaire in PE Settings The mean values of the predicted VO2peak by age and sex are presented in Table 3. According to the ANOVA
model, there was a significant main effect for age, F(4, 955) ¼ 10.542, p , .05, and sex, F(4, 955) ¼ 237.245, p , .05, indicating that overall, younger participants had higher VO2peak than their older peers. The same results also indicated that VO2peak was consistently higher in boys and that boys showed significantly higher values of VO2peak at all ages when compared with girls ( p , .05). MLR revealed that a model with questionnaire scores together was able to explain 14.2% of the variance in VO2peak scores in boys, F(4, 557) ¼ 22.978, p , .05, R 2 ¼ .142, and 12% of the variance in girls, F(2, 389) ¼ 26.402, p , .05, R 2 ¼ .120. The statistically relevant components (i.e., with statistically significant beta weights) were C4 (R 2 ¼ .082), C2 (R 2 ¼ .041), C3 (R 2 ¼ .015), and C1 (R 2 ¼ .008) for boys. In girls, statistically relevant factors were limited to C4 (R 2 ¼ .110) and C2 (R 2 ¼ .009; Table 4).
DISCUSSION
FIGURE 3 Mean scores and standard deviations in the “success orientation in PE” component representing age and sex.
FIGURE 4 Mean scores and standard deviations in the “attitude toward physical activity” component representing age and sex. ***Indicates significant sex differences in the age group ( p , .001).
This study describes a scale for attitudes toward PE developed for Hungarian adolescents and how derived scores from selected components relate to aerobic capacity. The national efforts in Hungary to improve PE programming led to the development of a national youth fitness battery that will soon be implemented throughout the country. The impact of this initiative can be determined in the future by examining how students perceive the experiences offered in PE. The attitude scale
FIGURE 5 Mean scores and standard deviations in the “cooperation and social experience in PE” component representing age and sex. *Indicates significant sex differences in the age groups (**p , .01, ***p , .001).
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TABLE 3 Marginal Means for Relative Peak Oxygen Uptake (ml*kg21*min21) by Age and Sex Predicted From PACER Age (Years) 15 # Sex Boys Girls
16 #
17 #
18 #
19 #
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
48.1 39.3
0.7 0.8
44.6* 37.7
0.7 0.7
44.7 37.0
0.6 0.7
44.3 36.5
0.7 0.9
41.9 34.2
0.9 1.2
Note. M ¼ mean; SD ¼ standard deviation. #Indicates statistically significant differences between boys and girls within the same age group ( p , .05). *Indicates statistically significant differences when compared with the preceding age group ( p , .05).
TABLE 4 Multiple Linear Regression Coefficients Boys Predictor Variable C1 C2 C3 C4 C5
Girls
Beta
SE
p Value
Beta
SE
p Value
1.110 21.786 1.164 1.673 20.065
.562 .338 .462 .443 .384
.049 ,.001 .012 ,.001 .124
0.094 20.583 0.025 1.808 0.076
.419 .298 .331 .273 .294
.083 .045 .609 ,.001 .127
Note. Dependent variable: VO2peak in ml*kg 21*min 21; C1 ¼ healthorientation/expectations of PE in terms of health; C2 ¼ avoid failure in PE; C3 ¼ success orientation in PE; C4 ¼ attitude toward physical activity; C5 ¼ cooperation and social experience in PE.
developed in this study can be a valuable tool for this purpose but needs further testing of its properties. We used performance in a long-distance field test to provide a preliminary indicator of the validity of the scale. Thus, the design of the study is still limited to observed associations but shows promise for additional research. More detail about the findings is described in the following paragraphs. Based on the responses of 961 high school students, the newly developed scale shows a reliable component structure with five components that characterize the students’ behavior, characteristics, and attitudes toward PE and active lifestyle. Health orientation/expectations of PE in terms of component scores in health, avoiding failure in PE, success orientation in PE, attitude toward PA, and cooperation and social experience in PE varied by sex, and there were no age differences in our sample. When estimates of aerobic capacity were regressed on the scores obtained from the various attitude components, attitude toward PA, avoiding failure in PE, success orientation in PE, and health orientation in PE were associated with aerobic capacity among the boys, but only attitudes toward PA and avoiding failure in PE were associated with aerobic
capacity in girls. The attitudes toward PA component explained the highest amount of variability (approximately 10%) of predicted VO2peak. The mean scores that characterize the students’ attitudes toward PA reveal that boys have more favorable attitudes toward PA and PE than girls. These findings are consistent with the results from Koca and Demirhan (2004), Olafson (2002), and Sa¨fvenbom, Haugen, and Bulie (2014) and might be explained with the findings that traditional PE curricula tend to favor competitive activities (i.e., sportoriented environment) and therefore make PA more attractive for boys (Talbot, 1990). Attitudes toward PA can be improved if PE classes are enjoyable and consist of challenging tasks while generating fun. Senne, Rowe, Boswell, Decker, and Douglas (2009) found higher levels of PA in activity-based lesson contexts of fitness activities, skill activity, and game play. Colley, Berman, and Van Millingen (2005) and Koca, Asc i, and Demirhan (2005) also identified attitude toward PA components as being important components. Additionally, the content of PE, branch of sport, stereotypes of activities, and tradition were other influencing components in attitudes and participation in PE. Our results suggest that boys and girls have different behavior characteristics and attitudes toward PE. Our study also suggests that different attitude components were associated with the aerobic capacity level in boys and girls; however, these findings are limited to the crosssectional design of our study and certainly do not imply causation.
WHAT DOES THIS ARTICLE ADD? This study examined the importance of attitudes toward PE. The importance that boys and girls attribute to PE classes should be used to engage these subgroups in activity during this period. Our results suggest that these attitudes can impact students’ physical fitness—namely,
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aerobic capacity. According to our study, the association with attitudes toward PE varied between boys and girls. The attitude toward PA and health orientation components were common factors among boys and girls, while success orientation and avoiding failure were two additional predictors of aerobic capacity in boys. Our study did not show any other relevant attitudes in girls. The results of this study can be used to promote awareness within the PE and public health community and open the debate for alternative PE curricula. PE classes that are inclusive of a variety of activities and increase the opportunities for success are likely to impact students’ activity levels and promote positive experiences. Our study provides a “snapshot” of related factors known to impact individuals’ behavior in a specific setting (i.e., PE); however, more research is needed to determine to what extent PE training programs that include behavior change strategies can be implemented on a national scale. ORCID Pedro F. Saint-Maurice http://orcid.org/0000-0002-8752-2340 Tama´s Csa´nyi http://orcid.org/0000-0003-2037-9217
REFERENCES Azzarito, L., & Solomon, M. A. (2005). A reconceptualization of physical education: The intersection of gender/race/social class. Sport, Education and Society, 10, 25 –47. Biddle, S. J. H., & Mutrie, N. (2001). Psychology of physical activity: Determinants, well-being and interventions. New York, NY: Routledge. Christodoulidis, T., Papaioannou, A., & Digelidis, N. (2001). Motivational climate and attitudes towards exercise in Greek senior high school: A year-long intervention. European Journal of Sport Sciences, 1(4), 228–241. Colley, A., Berman, E., & Van Millingen, L. (2005). Age and gender differences in young people’s perceptions of sport participants. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 35, 1440–1454. Csa´nyi, T., Finn, K. J., Welk, G. J., Zhu, W., Karsai, I., Iha´sz, F., . . . Molna´r, L. (this issue). Overview of the Hungarian National Youth Fitness Study. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 86(Suppl. 1). Dobbins, M., Husson, H., De Corby, K., & LaRocca, R. L. (2013). Schoolbased physical activity programs for promoting physical activity and fitness in children and adolescents aged 6 to 18. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 2, CD007651. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD007651. pub2 Erwin, H. E., Stellino, M. B., Beets, M. W., Beighle, A., & Johnson, C. E. (2013). Physical education lesson content and teacher style and elementary students’ motivation and physical activity levels. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 32, 321–334. Faulkner, G., Goodman, J., Adlaf, E., Irving, H., & Dwyer, J. (2007). Participation in high school physical education—Ontario, Canada (1999–2005). Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 56, 52–54.
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