Psychological Reporh, 1992, 71, 971-976. O Psychological Reports 1992
ARTISTIC ORIENTATION AS A CLINICAL INDICATOR OF CHRONIC CAREER INDECISION IN ADULT CHILDREN AND GRANDCHILDREN O F ALCOHOLICS ' JOSEPH l? PEDOTO
BRUCE W. HARTMAN
Newton Memorial Hospital
College o/ Education and Human Services Seton Hall University
Summary.-This study has empirically assessed whether artistic orientation and avoidance are good predictors of chronic career indecision for college-attending adult children and grandchildren of alcoholics. The sample consisted of 143 freshman and sophomore introductory psychology students attending a county college in the northeast. Osipow's Career Decision Scale total scores of artistically oriented children and grandchildren of alcoholics were not significantly higher than scores of those who were not artistic. As predicted, the Career Decision Scale total scores of avoidant subjects were significantly higher than those of nonavoidant subjects. As expected in both instances, no &ferences were found between artistic subjects and nonartistic subjects or between the avoidant and nonavoidant subjects. The findings suggest (1) that the artistic career-undecided children of alcoholics observed by Schumrum and Hartman in 1988 were, in fact, members of a broader avoidant group and (2) that the relationship between career indecision and avoidant personality style does vary according to family Status of whether subjects are adult children and grandchildren of alcoholics.
O n the basis of their clinical work, Schumrum and Hartman (1988) suggested that artistic orientation is a good predictor of chronic career indecision for college-attending adult children of alcoholics. These authors suggested that the relationshp of artistic orientation to such chronic career indecision could be explained in terms of the childhood history of withdrawing from their anxiety-laden family environment and engaging in solitary creative activities. Following the reasoning of Hartman, Fuqua, and Blum (1985), this adaptational style of withdrawing into solitary creative activities, however successful a strategy in the family setting, constricts the interpersonal range of situations outside the family to which the individual is exposed and consequently limits opportunities for accurate self-feedback and for developing a stable self-concept. Choosing an occupation requires the checking of compatibility between occupation and self-concept (Super, 1957), so that a poorly formed sense of self contributes to indecision. In addition, the difficulty in making comparisons may lead the individual to conclude that deciding on a career is beyond his control (i.e., is externally controlled). Smith (1988) suggested that adult children of alcoholic parents tend to recreate the anxiety-laden and emotionally constricted f a d y environments
'Please address enquiries to B. W. Hartrnan, College of Education and Human Services, Seton Hall University, South Orange, NJ 07079-2696.
972
J. P. PEDOTO & B. W. HARTMAN
of their families of origin even when they themselves are nondrinkers, indicating that a high proportion of grandchildren of alcoholics experience significant anxiety, most of which has historical antecedents in parent-child relationships. Following Carter and McGoldrick (1980), inordinate anxiety in parent-child relating by adult children and grandchildren of alcoholics is viewed here as a "vertical stressor" or dysfunctional pattern transmitted down through generations. Therefore, this study has empirically addressed whether artistic orientation can be a diagnostic indicator of the presence of chronic career indecision by comparing artistic and nonartistic students who are or are not adult children or grandchddren of alcoholics on a measure of career indecision provided by the Career Decision Scale (Osipow, 1987). Given that artistic involvement seemed to appear as one component of a more global avoidant style in the Schumrum and Hartman study, this study also examined the relationship of avoidance to indecision. Although Holland (1973, 1985) did not directly address the issue of avoidant personality style i n his work, people with artistic, investigative, and realistic orientations are described sirnilady by Holland and others (Hansen & Campbell, 1985) as being creative, asocial persons who prefer solitary work tasks. Thus, artistically oriented persons are viewed here as one subset of the larger avoidant group. Subjects The initial sample consisted of 217 freshman and sophomore students attending an introductory psychology class at a county community college in the northeast. Ten students declined to participate and four were excluded for missing data. The final group of 143 were limited to those aged 18 to 20 years and excluded students if the nature of the family dysfunction was not alcohol related. Women constituted 65% (n = 93) and men 35% (n = 50) of this final group. Although ethnic data were not collected, available college-wide data indicated that black, Hispanic, Asian, and American Indian students represented only 6% of the total college enrollment. Instruments The Personal and Family Questionnaire was designed by the researchers to provide basic demographic information on participants and also to facilitate the identification of whether these persons were adult children or grandchildren of alcoholics or not, or were children of other dysfunctional parents. Family information requested included parentslgrandparents' alcoholism status and parental status in other areas of personal dysfunction (i.e., compulsive gambling, drug addiction, child abuse, and chronic mental or physical illness). The use of a direct questioning technique in identifying students as
ARTISTIC ORIENTATION AND CAREER INDECISION
973
adult children of alcoholics, in particular, has been described by Clayton (1987) to be as effective as indirect methods such as the Children of Alcoholics Screening Test (Pilat &Jones, 1984). The Career Decision Scale (Osipow, 1987) is intended to measure educational-vocational indecision in college students. It is a 19-item self-rating scale employing a 4-point rating in Likert format (excluding Item 19, an open-ended question). Response alternatives range from "exactly like me" (scored as four) to "not at all like me" (scored as one). In this study, neither Items 1 and 2 (the Certaintv Scale) nor Item 19 were used in the statistical analysis of data; rather, only Items 3 through 18, the Indecision Scale, were used. As measured on the Indecision Scale, hlgher scores are representative of increasingly more serious indecision (Osipoul, Carney, & Barak, 1976). The validity and reliability of the scale have been examined in a number of studies and have been generally accepted. The manual (Osipow, 1987) presents a lengthy list of such studies. The Strong-Campbell Interest Inventory (Hansen & Campbell, 1985) is designed as an aid to making educational and career choices. In this study, analysis of the respondents' answers was based on the General Occupational Themes framework developed by John Holland (1966, 1973, 1985). The six Holland themes (i.e., types) are Artistic, Social, Realistic, Investigative, Enterprising, and Conventional. Assessment of each type is based on six 20item scales constructed by Campbell and Holland (1972) and Hansen and Johansson (1972) for the original scale (SVIB) and altered (Campbell, 1978) slightly for the revised one (SCII). Extensive reliability and validity data for the General Occupational Themes is included in the manual (Hansen & Campbell, 1985).
Procedure Subjects were administered all three tests and instructed to read instructions provided with each instrument before responding. All testing and information-gathering occurred in the classroom on a single occasion. Following completion of the instruments, subjects were debriefed and provided at their own chscretion a mailing address for subsequent contact. Analysis of Data To define groups for data analysis, participants, aged 18 to 20 years, were first divided into adult children or grandchildren of alcoholics (n = 48) or nonalcoholics (n = 95) using information obtained on their Personal and Family Questionnaire. Members of these groups were further subdivided according to their artistic or nonartistic Holland theme scores obtained from their Strong-Campbell Interest Inventory scores. A highest theme score on Artistic placed a subject into the appropriate artistic group; all other highest theme scorers were placed into a nonartistic group. Significant differences
97 4
J. P. PEDOTO & B. W. HARTMAN
between artistic and nonartistic groups of alcoholic families was expected. Students from nonalcoholic families, both artistic and nonartistic scorers, were also compared. In t h s case, no differences were anticipated since the relationship between artistic orientation and greater indecision was logically expected only within families with abnormally high anxiety. The notion that artistic orientation was a subset of a broader avoidant personality style was examined in two supplementary a priori hypotheses. To test these hypotheses, the above group assignment, statistical design, and statistics were employed with the exception that group members from alcoholic vs nonalcoholic f a d e s were subdivided according to their avoidantlnonavoidant statuses (i.e., avoidance replaced artistic as an independent variable). Avoidant group members were those subjects with highest scores on Artistic, Investigative, or Realistic themes taken from the Strong-Campbell Interest Inventory. Nonavoidant group members were h g h scorers on Social, Enterprising, or Conventional rhemes. Again, the expectation was that avoidant students from alcoholic families would exhibit significantly greater scores on indecision than nonavoidant students of alcoholic families, whereas no difference would be found between avoidant and nonavoidant subjects of nonalcoholic families.
RESULTS Counter to the expectations of the initial hypotheses, Career Decision Scale total scores of artistic students of alcohol-related families (n = 8, M = 34.88, SD = 5.03) were not significantly higher than those who were nonartistic (n = 40, M = 30.68, SD = 8.94; t,,, = 1.16, p > 0.05), although the means of the respective groups were aligned in the predicted direction. As anticipated, however, the Career Decision Scale total scores of students from nonalcoholic backgrounds, whether artistic (n = 17, M = 29.94, SD = 6.72) or nonartistic (n = 78, M = 29.29, SD = 10.33), did not differ significantly (t,,, = .26, p>0.05). As predicted in the supplementary hypotheses, the total scores on the Career Decision Scale of avoidant subjects from alcohol-related families (n = 14, M = 35.50, SD = 5.89) were significantly higher than those of nonavoidant subjects (n = 34, M = 29.68, SD = 8.90; t,,, = 2.0, p0.05) who came from nonalcohol-dependent families. DISCUSSION The findings of this study seem to suggest (1) that the artistic, careerundecided students from alcohol-dependent families observed by Schumrum and Hartman (1988) were, in fact, members of a broader avoidant group and
ARTISTIC ORIENTATION AND CAREER INDECISION
975
(2) that the relationship between career indecision and avoidant personality style does vary according to functional/dysfunctional family status (i.e., whether or not students were children or grandchildren of alcohol users). In regard to the hypotheses concerning artistic orientation, it seems plausible that sample size may have hindered efforts to detect differences existing within family groups between artistic and nonartistic students; the finding of no differences between artistic and nonartistic students from nonalcohol-related families, however, was as predicted. These findings have immediate implications for both the assessment and treatment of undecided students from dysfunctional families of alcoholics. With regard to the former, a key aim of this study was to validate empirically a diagnostic criterion which could be used to identify chronically undecided children or grandchildren of alcoholic families. Once identified, the assumption here and elsewhere (i.e., Schumrum & Hartman, 1988) is that these persons would require more intensive and psychotherapeutically oriented career counseling which Hartman (1990) has labeled career-focused psychotherapy. The identified components of this model are the personality traits identified in the causal model described by Hartman, et al. (1985). The assumptions of this model are (1) that a sequence of events has led the client to develop an external locus of control that is manifest in blaming others and the work environment for an inability to establish a stable work history, (2) that the resolution of the work-related difficulties is not to search for the "right" job based on the belief that by finding their "niche" work-related difficulties wd end, but in (3) understanding where they are occupationally as a consequence of repetitive maladaptive behavior patterns that they learned in response to anxiety experienced in childhood and that these patterns function to keep them unstable in the workplace. Resolution of chronic career indecision comes when the client develops job stability in the current work setting, after which the definition of a career is a succession of rewarding experiences that the client perceives as under personal control. REFERENCES CAMPBELL,D. P. (1978) Manual for the SVIB-SCII. (2nd ed.) Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press. J. L. (1972) A merger in vocational interest research: applying CAMPBELL,D. P., & HOLLAND, Holland's theory to Strong's data. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 2, 353-376. CARTER,E. A,, & MCGOLDRICK, M. (1980) The family life cycle and family therapy: an overview. In E. A. Carter & M. McGoldrick (Eds.), The family life cycle: a framework for family therapy. New York: Gardner. Pp. 3-20. CLAYTON, l? (1987) Self-re orted alcohol, drug, and eating disorder problems among male and female collegiate chgdren of alcoholics. Journal of American College Health, 36, 111-116. HANSEN, J. C., & CAMPBELL,D. l? (1985) Manualfor the SVIB-SCII. (4th ed.) Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press. HANSEN, J. C., & JOHANSSON, C. B. (1972) The application of Holland's vocational model to the Strong Vocational Interest Blank for Women. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 2, 479-493.
976
J. P. PEDOTO & B. W. HARTMAN
HARTMAN, B. W. (1990) Endless unacceptable alternatives: the case of Sondra. Career Development Quarterly, 39(1), 40-43. HARTMAN,B. W., FUQUA,D. R., & BLUM,C. R. (1985) A path-analytic model of career indecision. Vocational Guidance Quarterly, 33, 23 1-240. HOLLAND, J. L. (1966) The psychology of vocational choice. Waltham, M A : Blaisdell. HOLLAND, J. L. (1973) Making vocational choices. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hd. HOLLAND, J. L. (1985) Making vocational choices: a theory of vocational personalities and work environments. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hd. OSIPOW, S. H. (1987) Career Decision Scale manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources. OSIPOW, S. H . , CARNEY,C. G., & BARAK,A. (1976) A scale of educational-vocational undecidedness: a typological approach. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 9, 233-243. PLAT, J. M., & JONES,J. W. (1984) Identification of children of alcoholics: two empirical studies. Alcohol, Health and Research World, Winter, 27-36. SCHUMRUM, T., & HARTMAN, B. (1988) Adult children of alcoholics and chronic career indecision. The Career Development Quarterly, 37, 118-126. SMITH, A. W. (1988) Grandchildren of alcoholics: another generation of codependency. Pompano Beach, FL: Health Communications. SUPER,D. E. (1957) The psychology ofcareers. New York: Harper.
Accepted September 21, 1992.
ARTISTIC ORIENTATION AS A CLINICAL INDICATOR OF CHRONIC CAREER INDECISION IN ADULT CHILDREN AND GRANDCHILDREN O F ALCOHOLICS ' JOSEPH l? PEDOTO
BRUCE W. HARTMAN
Newton Memorial Hospital
College o/ Education and Human Services Seton Hall University
Summary.-This study has empirically assessed whether artistic orientation and avoidance are good predictors of chronic career indecision for college-attending adult children and grandchildren of alcoholics. The sample consisted of 143 freshman and sophomore introductory psychology students attending a county college in the northeast. Osipow's Career Decision Scale total scores of artistically oriented children and grandchildren of alcoholics were not significantly higher than scores of those who were not artistic. As predicted, the Career Decision Scale total scores of avoidant subjects were significantly higher than those of nonavoidant subjects. As expected in both instances, no &ferences were found between artistic subjects and nonartistic subjects or between the avoidant and nonavoidant subjects. The findings suggest (1) that the artistic career-undecided children of alcoholics observed by Schumrum and Hartman in 1988 were, in fact, members of a broader avoidant group and (2) that the relationship between career indecision and avoidant personality style does vary according to family Status of whether subjects are adult children and grandchildren of alcoholics.
O n the basis of their clinical work, Schumrum and Hartman (1988) suggested that artistic orientation is a good predictor of chronic career indecision for college-attending adult children of alcoholics. These authors suggested that the relationshp of artistic orientation to such chronic career indecision could be explained in terms of the childhood history of withdrawing from their anxiety-laden family environment and engaging in solitary creative activities. Following the reasoning of Hartman, Fuqua, and Blum (1985), this adaptational style of withdrawing into solitary creative activities, however successful a strategy in the family setting, constricts the interpersonal range of situations outside the family to which the individual is exposed and consequently limits opportunities for accurate self-feedback and for developing a stable self-concept. Choosing an occupation requires the checking of compatibility between occupation and self-concept (Super, 1957), so that a poorly formed sense of self contributes to indecision. In addition, the difficulty in making comparisons may lead the individual to conclude that deciding on a career is beyond his control (i.e., is externally controlled). Smith (1988) suggested that adult children of alcoholic parents tend to recreate the anxiety-laden and emotionally constricted f a d y environments
'Please address enquiries to B. W. Hartrnan, College of Education and Human Services, Seton Hall University, South Orange, NJ 07079-2696.
972
J. P. PEDOTO & B. W. HARTMAN
of their families of origin even when they themselves are nondrinkers, indicating that a high proportion of grandchildren of alcoholics experience significant anxiety, most of which has historical antecedents in parent-child relationships. Following Carter and McGoldrick (1980), inordinate anxiety in parent-child relating by adult children and grandchildren of alcoholics is viewed here as a "vertical stressor" or dysfunctional pattern transmitted down through generations. Therefore, this study has empirically addressed whether artistic orientation can be a diagnostic indicator of the presence of chronic career indecision by comparing artistic and nonartistic students who are or are not adult children or grandchddren of alcoholics on a measure of career indecision provided by the Career Decision Scale (Osipow, 1987). Given that artistic involvement seemed to appear as one component of a more global avoidant style in the Schumrum and Hartman study, this study also examined the relationship of avoidance to indecision. Although Holland (1973, 1985) did not directly address the issue of avoidant personality style i n his work, people with artistic, investigative, and realistic orientations are described sirnilady by Holland and others (Hansen & Campbell, 1985) as being creative, asocial persons who prefer solitary work tasks. Thus, artistically oriented persons are viewed here as one subset of the larger avoidant group. Subjects The initial sample consisted of 217 freshman and sophomore students attending an introductory psychology class at a county community college in the northeast. Ten students declined to participate and four were excluded for missing data. The final group of 143 were limited to those aged 18 to 20 years and excluded students if the nature of the family dysfunction was not alcohol related. Women constituted 65% (n = 93) and men 35% (n = 50) of this final group. Although ethnic data were not collected, available college-wide data indicated that black, Hispanic, Asian, and American Indian students represented only 6% of the total college enrollment. Instruments The Personal and Family Questionnaire was designed by the researchers to provide basic demographic information on participants and also to facilitate the identification of whether these persons were adult children or grandchildren of alcoholics or not, or were children of other dysfunctional parents. Family information requested included parentslgrandparents' alcoholism status and parental status in other areas of personal dysfunction (i.e., compulsive gambling, drug addiction, child abuse, and chronic mental or physical illness). The use of a direct questioning technique in identifying students as
ARTISTIC ORIENTATION AND CAREER INDECISION
973
adult children of alcoholics, in particular, has been described by Clayton (1987) to be as effective as indirect methods such as the Children of Alcoholics Screening Test (Pilat &Jones, 1984). The Career Decision Scale (Osipow, 1987) is intended to measure educational-vocational indecision in college students. It is a 19-item self-rating scale employing a 4-point rating in Likert format (excluding Item 19, an open-ended question). Response alternatives range from "exactly like me" (scored as four) to "not at all like me" (scored as one). In this study, neither Items 1 and 2 (the Certaintv Scale) nor Item 19 were used in the statistical analysis of data; rather, only Items 3 through 18, the Indecision Scale, were used. As measured on the Indecision Scale, hlgher scores are representative of increasingly more serious indecision (Osipoul, Carney, & Barak, 1976). The validity and reliability of the scale have been examined in a number of studies and have been generally accepted. The manual (Osipow, 1987) presents a lengthy list of such studies. The Strong-Campbell Interest Inventory (Hansen & Campbell, 1985) is designed as an aid to making educational and career choices. In this study, analysis of the respondents' answers was based on the General Occupational Themes framework developed by John Holland (1966, 1973, 1985). The six Holland themes (i.e., types) are Artistic, Social, Realistic, Investigative, Enterprising, and Conventional. Assessment of each type is based on six 20item scales constructed by Campbell and Holland (1972) and Hansen and Johansson (1972) for the original scale (SVIB) and altered (Campbell, 1978) slightly for the revised one (SCII). Extensive reliability and validity data for the General Occupational Themes is included in the manual (Hansen & Campbell, 1985).
Procedure Subjects were administered all three tests and instructed to read instructions provided with each instrument before responding. All testing and information-gathering occurred in the classroom on a single occasion. Following completion of the instruments, subjects were debriefed and provided at their own chscretion a mailing address for subsequent contact. Analysis of Data To define groups for data analysis, participants, aged 18 to 20 years, were first divided into adult children or grandchildren of alcoholics (n = 48) or nonalcoholics (n = 95) using information obtained on their Personal and Family Questionnaire. Members of these groups were further subdivided according to their artistic or nonartistic Holland theme scores obtained from their Strong-Campbell Interest Inventory scores. A highest theme score on Artistic placed a subject into the appropriate artistic group; all other highest theme scorers were placed into a nonartistic group. Significant differences
97 4
J. P. PEDOTO & B. W. HARTMAN
between artistic and nonartistic groups of alcoholic families was expected. Students from nonalcoholic families, both artistic and nonartistic scorers, were also compared. In t h s case, no differences were anticipated since the relationship between artistic orientation and greater indecision was logically expected only within families with abnormally high anxiety. The notion that artistic orientation was a subset of a broader avoidant personality style was examined in two supplementary a priori hypotheses. To test these hypotheses, the above group assignment, statistical design, and statistics were employed with the exception that group members from alcoholic vs nonalcoholic f a d e s were subdivided according to their avoidantlnonavoidant statuses (i.e., avoidance replaced artistic as an independent variable). Avoidant group members were those subjects with highest scores on Artistic, Investigative, or Realistic themes taken from the Strong-Campbell Interest Inventory. Nonavoidant group members were h g h scorers on Social, Enterprising, or Conventional rhemes. Again, the expectation was that avoidant students from alcoholic families would exhibit significantly greater scores on indecision than nonavoidant students of alcoholic families, whereas no difference would be found between avoidant and nonavoidant subjects of nonalcoholic families.
RESULTS Counter to the expectations of the initial hypotheses, Career Decision Scale total scores of artistic students of alcohol-related families (n = 8, M = 34.88, SD = 5.03) were not significantly higher than those who were nonartistic (n = 40, M = 30.68, SD = 8.94; t,,, = 1.16, p > 0.05), although the means of the respective groups were aligned in the predicted direction. As anticipated, however, the Career Decision Scale total scores of students from nonalcoholic backgrounds, whether artistic (n = 17, M = 29.94, SD = 6.72) or nonartistic (n = 78, M = 29.29, SD = 10.33), did not differ significantly (t,,, = .26, p>0.05). As predicted in the supplementary hypotheses, the total scores on the Career Decision Scale of avoidant subjects from alcohol-related families (n = 14, M = 35.50, SD = 5.89) were significantly higher than those of nonavoidant subjects (n = 34, M = 29.68, SD = 8.90; t,,, = 2.0, p0.05) who came from nonalcohol-dependent families. DISCUSSION The findings of this study seem to suggest (1) that the artistic, careerundecided students from alcohol-dependent families observed by Schumrum and Hartman (1988) were, in fact, members of a broader avoidant group and
ARTISTIC ORIENTATION AND CAREER INDECISION
975
(2) that the relationship between career indecision and avoidant personality style does vary according to functional/dysfunctional family status (i.e., whether or not students were children or grandchildren of alcohol users). In regard to the hypotheses concerning artistic orientation, it seems plausible that sample size may have hindered efforts to detect differences existing within family groups between artistic and nonartistic students; the finding of no differences between artistic and nonartistic students from nonalcohol-related families, however, was as predicted. These findings have immediate implications for both the assessment and treatment of undecided students from dysfunctional families of alcoholics. With regard to the former, a key aim of this study was to validate empirically a diagnostic criterion which could be used to identify chronically undecided children or grandchildren of alcoholic families. Once identified, the assumption here and elsewhere (i.e., Schumrum & Hartman, 1988) is that these persons would require more intensive and psychotherapeutically oriented career counseling which Hartman (1990) has labeled career-focused psychotherapy. The identified components of this model are the personality traits identified in the causal model described by Hartman, et al. (1985). The assumptions of this model are (1) that a sequence of events has led the client to develop an external locus of control that is manifest in blaming others and the work environment for an inability to establish a stable work history, (2) that the resolution of the work-related difficulties is not to search for the "right" job based on the belief that by finding their "niche" work-related difficulties wd end, but in (3) understanding where they are occupationally as a consequence of repetitive maladaptive behavior patterns that they learned in response to anxiety experienced in childhood and that these patterns function to keep them unstable in the workplace. Resolution of chronic career indecision comes when the client develops job stability in the current work setting, after which the definition of a career is a succession of rewarding experiences that the client perceives as under personal control. REFERENCES CAMPBELL,D. P. (1978) Manual for the SVIB-SCII. (2nd ed.) Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press. J. L. (1972) A merger in vocational interest research: applying CAMPBELL,D. P., & HOLLAND, Holland's theory to Strong's data. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 2, 353-376. CARTER,E. A,, & MCGOLDRICK, M. (1980) The family life cycle and family therapy: an overview. In E. A. Carter & M. McGoldrick (Eds.), The family life cycle: a framework for family therapy. New York: Gardner. Pp. 3-20. CLAYTON, l? (1987) Self-re orted alcohol, drug, and eating disorder problems among male and female collegiate chgdren of alcoholics. Journal of American College Health, 36, 111-116. HANSEN, J. C., & CAMPBELL,D. l? (1985) Manualfor the SVIB-SCII. (4th ed.) Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press. HANSEN, J. C., & JOHANSSON, C. B. (1972) The application of Holland's vocational model to the Strong Vocational Interest Blank for Women. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 2, 479-493.
976
J. P. PEDOTO & B. W. HARTMAN
HARTMAN, B. W. (1990) Endless unacceptable alternatives: the case of Sondra. Career Development Quarterly, 39(1), 40-43. HARTMAN,B. W., FUQUA,D. R., & BLUM,C. R. (1985) A path-analytic model of career indecision. Vocational Guidance Quarterly, 33, 23 1-240. HOLLAND, J. L. (1966) The psychology of vocational choice. Waltham, M A : Blaisdell. HOLLAND, J. L. (1973) Making vocational choices. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hd. HOLLAND, J. L. (1985) Making vocational choices: a theory of vocational personalities and work environments. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hd. OSIPOW, S. H. (1987) Career Decision Scale manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources. OSIPOW, S. H . , CARNEY,C. G., & BARAK,A. (1976) A scale of educational-vocational undecidedness: a typological approach. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 9, 233-243. PLAT, J. M., & JONES,J. W. (1984) Identification of children of alcoholics: two empirical studies. Alcohol, Health and Research World, Winter, 27-36. SCHUMRUM, T., & HARTMAN, B. (1988) Adult children of alcoholics and chronic career indecision. The Career Development Quarterly, 37, 118-126. SMITH, A. W. (1988) Grandchildren of alcoholics: another generation of codependency. Pompano Beach, FL: Health Communications. SUPER,D. E. (1957) The psychology ofcareers. New York: Harper.
Accepted September 21, 1992.
