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Natural Product Research: Formerly Natural Product Letters Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/gnpl20
Antibacterial and antioxidant constituents of Acalypha wilkesiana ab
c
d
Chinedu P. Anokwuru , Annamaria Sinisi , Amidou Samie & c
Orazio Taglialatela-Scafati a
Department of Basic Science, School of Science and Technology, Babcock University, Ilisan Remo, Nigeria b
Department of Chemistry, School of Mathematical and Natural Sciences, University of Venda, Thohoyandou, South Africa c
Click for updates
Department of Pharmacy, University of Naples Federico II, Via Montesano 49, 80131Naples, Italy d
Department of Microbiology, School of Mathematical and Natural Sciences, University of Venda, Thohoyandou, South Africa Published online: 26 Nov 2014.
To cite this article: Chinedu P. Anokwuru, Annamaria Sinisi, Amidou Samie & Orazio TaglialatelaScafati (2014): Antibacterial and antioxidant constituents of Acalypha wilkesiana, Natural Product Research: Formerly Natural Product Letters, DOI: 10.1080/14786419.2014.983105 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14786419.2014.983105
PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the “Content”) contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinions and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors, and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content should not be relied upon and should be independently verified with primary sources of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising out of the use of the Content. This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing,
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Natural Product Research, 2014 http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14786419.2014.983105
SHORT COMMUNICATION Antibacterial and antioxidant constituents of Acalypha wilkesiana Chinedu P. Anokwuruab*, Annamaria Sinisic, Amidou Samied and Orazio Taglialatela-Scafatic a Department of Basic Science, School of Science and Technology, Babcock University, Ilisan Remo, Nigeria; bDepartment of Chemistry, School of Mathematical and Natural Sciences, University of Venda, Thohoyandou, South Africa; cDepartment of Pharmacy, University of Naples Federico II, Via Montesano 49, 80131 Naples, Italy; dDepartment of Microbiology, School of Mathematical and Natural Sciences, University of Venda, Thohoyandou, South Africa
Downloaded by [RMIT University] at 05:14 14 March 2015
(Received 9 May 2014; final version received 26 October 2014)
This study was aimed at characterising the secondary metabolites responsible for antibacterial and antioxidant activities of Acalypha wilkesiana. Purification of the defatted methanol leaves extract was guided by the DPPH free radical scavenging assay as well as by evaluation of the antibacterial activity against four bacterial strains. As a result, geraniin, corilagin, quadrangularic acid M and shikimic acid were purified and isolated. Shikimic acid, reported for the first time from this plant, proved to be the major metabolite of the extract. All the four isolated compounds showed bactericidal activity against extended spectrum beta-lactamase-producing Klebsiella pneumoniae (700603), while corilagin was the single compound to exhibit antioxidant activity (IC50 53 mg/mL). Keywords: geraniin; corilagin; quadrangularic acid M; shikimic acid; Acalypha wilkesiana
1. Introduction Acalypha wilkesiana Muell. Arg (family Euphorbiaceae) is used in traditional medicine for the treatment of bacterial and fungal infections, malaria, pain, dermatological, gastro-intestinal disorders (Gotep et al. 2010) and inflammation (Onocha & Olusanya 2010). The antimicrobial activity has been related to the presence of the polyphenol derivatives gallic acid, corilagin and geraniin, isolated from the leaves of this plant (Adesina et al. 2000). Other investigations have also shown the presence of 3 flavonoids (artemetin, luteolin and vitexicarpin), 5 carotenoids and 12 simple terpenes (Onyeike et al. 2010). In a previous study of A. wilkesiana leaves, we have reported
*Corresponding author. Email: [email protected] q 2014 Taylor & Francis
2
C.P. Anokwuru et al.
the antimicrobial activity of crude fractions of the methanol extract (Ezekiel et al. 2009; Haruna et al. 2013). Furthermore, we have shown that A. wilkesiana leaves have very high antioxidant and antidenaturing activities (Anokwuru et al. 2012). On continuing our research on the phytochemistry and biological activity of medicinal plants, we report in this paper the antibacterial and antioxidant activities of pure compounds isolated from A. wilkesiana leaves (Figure 1).
Downloaded by [RMIT University] at 05:14 14 March 2015
2. Results and discussion Bioassay-guided fractionation of the organic extract obtained from the leaves of A. wilkesiana yielded four major compounds (1 – 4). Among them, shikimic acid (3) is reported here for the first time as a major constituent of this plant. Similarly, the steroidal derivative quadrangularic acid M is reported for the first time as a constituent of A. wilkesiana. This steroid has been reported only from the evergreen tree Combretum quadrangulare (Banskota et al. 2000), but, interestingly, structurally related cycloartane steroids have been found in Acalypha communis (Gutierrez-Lugo et al. 2002). The taxonomic significance of these oxidised cycloartane derivatives is worthy of further investigation. Geraniin (1) showed growth inhibition against all the bacteria tested (Table 1) with the highest inhibition for S. areaus (33591). The inhibitory activity on tested organisms was lower than the standard drug (Table 1). It was bactericidal only against Klebsiella pneumoniae (700603) at 50 mg/mL. Previous studies by Adesina et al. (2000) reported the antibacterial activity of geraniin isolated from A. wilkesiana. Geraniin did not show any free radical scavenging activity (Table 2) at the concentration of 100 mg/mL, which is contrary to the antioxidant activity reported by Lin et al. (2008). This discrepancy could be as explained on the basis of the different methods used for the detection of the free radical scavenging activity. Corilagin (2) inhibited the growth of Escherichia coli (35218), methyleneresistant Staphylococcus aureus (25923) and K. pneumoniae (700603) (Table 1). It could not inhibit the growth of methylene-sensitive strain of S. areus at the concentration tested. The inhibitory activity on the tested organisms was lower than the standard drug (Table 1). It exhibited bactericidal activity against K. pneumoniae (700603) at 100 mg/mL. Previous studies have shown antibacterial activity of corilagin isolated from A. wilkesiana (Adesina et al. 2000) and Polygonum chinense Lin (Xiao et al. 2013). Corilagin showed DPPH free radical
HO OH
HO
OH
HO O O O O O
O
O O
O O
O
OH
OH HO
OH
OH
O HO O HO HO
OH OH HO 1
Figure 1. Compounds isolated from A. wilkesiana.
3
OH
2
O
OH OH
OH
OH OH
HO
O
O O
O
HO
COOH
OH
O H
OH
HO
OH O
HO OH
HO
COOH
4
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Table 1. Antibacterial activity of compounds isolated from A. wilkesiana. 1
2
3
4
5
Organisms
MIC
MBC
MIC
MBC
MIC
MBC
MIC
MBC
MIC
E. coli 35218 S. aureus 33591 S. aureus 25923 K. pneumoniae 700603
100 50 100 100
– – – 50
50 – 100 100
– – – 100
50 – 50 50
– – – 50
25 50 25 50
– – – 50
0.82 1.7 0.08 0.92
Notes: MIC, minimum inhibitory concentration (mg/mL); MBC, minimum bactericidal concentration (mg/mL); –, no activity; 1, geraniin; 2, corilagin; 3, shikimic acid; 4, quadrangularic acid M; 5, gentamycin.
Table 2. Antioxidant activity of compounds isolated from A. wilkesiana.
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Compound Geraniin Corilagin Shikimic acid Quadrangulare acid M Gallic acid
IC50 (mg/mL) N/A 53 ^ 0.6a N/A N/A 3.04 ^ 0.1b
Notes: N/A, no activity; data expressed as mean and standard error of three determinations. Data with different lower case letters are significantly different ( p , 0.05).
scavenging activity of 53 mg/mL (Table 2), which is in agreement with a previous report by Tabata et al. (2008). This activity is lower than the activity of gallic acid. This study identifies for the first time shikimic acid (3) as a major constituent of the leaves of A. wilkesiana. Rao and Merugu (2012) also reported that shikimic acid was the major constituent isolated from Ludwigia alternifolia Linn leaves. As reported in Table 1, shikimic acid showed antibacterial activity against three of the four strains tested with MIC 50 mg/mL and was bactericidal against K. pneumoniae at 50 mg/mL; however, this activity was lower than the standard drug (Table 1). The antibacterial activity of shikimic acid has been previously reported by Zeng et al. (2012). Shikimic acid did not show any antioxidant activity (Table 2) and, accordingly, in the literature there is no report of its antioxidant activity. As shown in Table 1, quadrangularic acid M (4) inhibited the growth of E. coli (35218), S. aureus (33591), methiciline-resistant S. aureus (25923) and K. pneumoniae (700603). The inhibitory activity on the tested organisms was lower than the standard drug (Table 1). It exhibited bactericidal activity against K. pneumoniae (700603) at 50 mg/mL. It did not exhibit any antioxidant activity (Table 2). 3. Conclusion In conclusion, we have found that the antioxidant activity of A. wilkesiana extract is mainly ascribable to corilagin, while its antibacterial activity should be due to shikimic acid, quadrangularic acid M, geraniin and corilagin. Supplementary material Experimental materials relating to this article are available online, alongside Figure S1. Acknowledgement NMR and MS spectra were obtained at ‘Centro Interdipartimentale di Servizio di Analisi Strumentale at the University of Naples Federico II’.
4
C.P. Anokwuru et al.
Downloaded by [RMIT University] at 05:14 14 March 2015
References Adesina SK, Idowu O, Ogundaini AO, Oladimeji H, Olugbade TA. 2000. Antimicrobial constituents of the leaves of Acalypha wilkesiana and Acalypha hispida. Phytother Res. 14:371–374. Anokwuru CP, Adaramola FB, Akinrinbola D, Fagbemi E, Onikoyi F. 2012. Antioxidant and anti-denaturing activities of defatted and non-defatted methanolic extracts of three medicinal plants in Nigeria. Research. 4:56–62. Banskota AH, Tezuka Y, Tran KQ, Tanaka K, Saiki I, Kadota S. 2000. Thirteen novel cycloartane-type triterpenes from Combretum quadrangulare. J Nat Prod. 63:57– 64. Ezekiel CN, Anokwuru CP, Nsofor E, Odusanya OA, Adebanjo O. 2009. Antimicrobial activity of the methanolic and crude alkaloid extracts of Acalypha wilkesiana. Res J Microbiol. 4:269– 277. Gotep J, Agada G, Gbise D, Chollom S. 2010. Antibacterial activity of ethanolic extract of Acalypha wilkesiana leaves growing in Jos, Plateau State, Nigeria. Malays J. Microbiol. 6:69–74. Gutierrez-Lugo M, Singh MP, Maiese WM, Timmermann BN. 2002. New antimicrobial cycloartane triterpenes from Acalypha communis. J Nat Prod. 65:872–875. Haruna MT, Anokwuru CP, Akeredolu AA, Akinsemolu AA, Alabi OA. 2013. Antibacterial and antifungal activity of Acalypha wilkesiana. Eur J Med Plants. 3:52–64. Lin S, Wang C, Lu Y, Wud W, Hou W. 2008. Antioxidant, anti-semicarbazide-sensitive amine oxidase, and antihypertensiveactivities of geraniin isolated from Phyllanthus urinaria. Food Chem. Toxicol. 46:2485 –2492. Onocha PA, Olusanya TOB. 2010. Antimicrobial and anthelmintic Evaluation of Nigerian Euphorbiaceae Plants 3: Acalypha wilkesiana. Afr Sci. 11:85–89. Onyeike EN, Ikewuchi JC, Ikewuchi CC, Uwakwe AA. 2010. Quantitative high performance liquid chromatography analysis of simple terpenes, carotenoids, phytosterols and flavonoids in the leaves of Acalypha wilkesiana Muell Arg. Pac J Sci Technol. 11:480–487. Rao AS, Merugu RJ. 2012. Shikimic acid as a major compound from Ludwigia alternifolia Linn. Pharmcognosy. 3:121–122. Tabata H, Katsube T, Tsuma T, Ohta Y, Imawaka N, Utsumi T. 2008. Isolation and evaluation of the radical-scavenging activity of the antioxidants in the leaves of an edible plant, Mallotus japonicus. Food Chem. 109:64–71. Xiao H, Tsang S, Qin H, Choi FFK, Yang Z, Han Q, Chen H, Xu H, Shen H, Lu A, Bian Z. 2013. A bioactivity-guided study on the anti-diarrhoeal activity of Polygonum chinense Linn. J Ethnopharmacol. 149:499–505. Zeng W, He Q, Sun Q, Zhong K, Gao H. 2012. Antibacterial activity of water-soluble extract from pine needles of Cedrus deodara. Int J Food Microbiol. 153:78–84.
Natural Product Research: Formerly Natural Product Letters Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/gnpl20
Antibacterial and antioxidant constituents of Acalypha wilkesiana ab
c
d
Chinedu P. Anokwuru , Annamaria Sinisi , Amidou Samie & c
Orazio Taglialatela-Scafati a
Department of Basic Science, School of Science and Technology, Babcock University, Ilisan Remo, Nigeria b
Department of Chemistry, School of Mathematical and Natural Sciences, University of Venda, Thohoyandou, South Africa c
Click for updates
Department of Pharmacy, University of Naples Federico II, Via Montesano 49, 80131Naples, Italy d
Department of Microbiology, School of Mathematical and Natural Sciences, University of Venda, Thohoyandou, South Africa Published online: 26 Nov 2014.
To cite this article: Chinedu P. Anokwuru, Annamaria Sinisi, Amidou Samie & Orazio TaglialatelaScafati (2014): Antibacterial and antioxidant constituents of Acalypha wilkesiana, Natural Product Research: Formerly Natural Product Letters, DOI: 10.1080/14786419.2014.983105 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14786419.2014.983105
PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the “Content”) contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinions and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors, and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content should not be relied upon and should be independently verified with primary sources of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising out of the use of the Content. This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing,
Downloaded by [RMIT University] at 05:14 14 March 2015
systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/page/termsand-conditions
Natural Product Research, 2014 http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14786419.2014.983105
SHORT COMMUNICATION Antibacterial and antioxidant constituents of Acalypha wilkesiana Chinedu P. Anokwuruab*, Annamaria Sinisic, Amidou Samied and Orazio Taglialatela-Scafatic a Department of Basic Science, School of Science and Technology, Babcock University, Ilisan Remo, Nigeria; bDepartment of Chemistry, School of Mathematical and Natural Sciences, University of Venda, Thohoyandou, South Africa; cDepartment of Pharmacy, University of Naples Federico II, Via Montesano 49, 80131 Naples, Italy; dDepartment of Microbiology, School of Mathematical and Natural Sciences, University of Venda, Thohoyandou, South Africa
Downloaded by [RMIT University] at 05:14 14 March 2015
(Received 9 May 2014; final version received 26 October 2014)
This study was aimed at characterising the secondary metabolites responsible for antibacterial and antioxidant activities of Acalypha wilkesiana. Purification of the defatted methanol leaves extract was guided by the DPPH free radical scavenging assay as well as by evaluation of the antibacterial activity against four bacterial strains. As a result, geraniin, corilagin, quadrangularic acid M and shikimic acid were purified and isolated. Shikimic acid, reported for the first time from this plant, proved to be the major metabolite of the extract. All the four isolated compounds showed bactericidal activity against extended spectrum beta-lactamase-producing Klebsiella pneumoniae (700603), while corilagin was the single compound to exhibit antioxidant activity (IC50 53 mg/mL). Keywords: geraniin; corilagin; quadrangularic acid M; shikimic acid; Acalypha wilkesiana
1. Introduction Acalypha wilkesiana Muell. Arg (family Euphorbiaceae) is used in traditional medicine for the treatment of bacterial and fungal infections, malaria, pain, dermatological, gastro-intestinal disorders (Gotep et al. 2010) and inflammation (Onocha & Olusanya 2010). The antimicrobial activity has been related to the presence of the polyphenol derivatives gallic acid, corilagin and geraniin, isolated from the leaves of this plant (Adesina et al. 2000). Other investigations have also shown the presence of 3 flavonoids (artemetin, luteolin and vitexicarpin), 5 carotenoids and 12 simple terpenes (Onyeike et al. 2010). In a previous study of A. wilkesiana leaves, we have reported
*Corresponding author. Email: [email protected] q 2014 Taylor & Francis
2
C.P. Anokwuru et al.
the antimicrobial activity of crude fractions of the methanol extract (Ezekiel et al. 2009; Haruna et al. 2013). Furthermore, we have shown that A. wilkesiana leaves have very high antioxidant and antidenaturing activities (Anokwuru et al. 2012). On continuing our research on the phytochemistry and biological activity of medicinal plants, we report in this paper the antibacterial and antioxidant activities of pure compounds isolated from A. wilkesiana leaves (Figure 1).
Downloaded by [RMIT University] at 05:14 14 March 2015
2. Results and discussion Bioassay-guided fractionation of the organic extract obtained from the leaves of A. wilkesiana yielded four major compounds (1 – 4). Among them, shikimic acid (3) is reported here for the first time as a major constituent of this plant. Similarly, the steroidal derivative quadrangularic acid M is reported for the first time as a constituent of A. wilkesiana. This steroid has been reported only from the evergreen tree Combretum quadrangulare (Banskota et al. 2000), but, interestingly, structurally related cycloartane steroids have been found in Acalypha communis (Gutierrez-Lugo et al. 2002). The taxonomic significance of these oxidised cycloartane derivatives is worthy of further investigation. Geraniin (1) showed growth inhibition against all the bacteria tested (Table 1) with the highest inhibition for S. areaus (33591). The inhibitory activity on tested organisms was lower than the standard drug (Table 1). It was bactericidal only against Klebsiella pneumoniae (700603) at 50 mg/mL. Previous studies by Adesina et al. (2000) reported the antibacterial activity of geraniin isolated from A. wilkesiana. Geraniin did not show any free radical scavenging activity (Table 2) at the concentration of 100 mg/mL, which is contrary to the antioxidant activity reported by Lin et al. (2008). This discrepancy could be as explained on the basis of the different methods used for the detection of the free radical scavenging activity. Corilagin (2) inhibited the growth of Escherichia coli (35218), methyleneresistant Staphylococcus aureus (25923) and K. pneumoniae (700603) (Table 1). It could not inhibit the growth of methylene-sensitive strain of S. areus at the concentration tested. The inhibitory activity on the tested organisms was lower than the standard drug (Table 1). It exhibited bactericidal activity against K. pneumoniae (700603) at 100 mg/mL. Previous studies have shown antibacterial activity of corilagin isolated from A. wilkesiana (Adesina et al. 2000) and Polygonum chinense Lin (Xiao et al. 2013). Corilagin showed DPPH free radical
HO OH
HO
OH
HO O O O O O
O
O O
O O
O
OH
OH HO
OH
OH
O HO O HO HO
OH OH HO 1
Figure 1. Compounds isolated from A. wilkesiana.
3
OH
2
O
OH OH
OH
OH OH
HO
O
O O
O
HO
COOH
OH
O H
OH
HO
OH O
HO OH
HO
COOH
4
Natural Product Research
3
Table 1. Antibacterial activity of compounds isolated from A. wilkesiana. 1
2
3
4
5
Organisms
MIC
MBC
MIC
MBC
MIC
MBC
MIC
MBC
MIC
E. coli 35218 S. aureus 33591 S. aureus 25923 K. pneumoniae 700603
100 50 100 100
– – – 50
50 – 100 100
– – – 100
50 – 50 50
– – – 50
25 50 25 50
– – – 50
0.82 1.7 0.08 0.92
Notes: MIC, minimum inhibitory concentration (mg/mL); MBC, minimum bactericidal concentration (mg/mL); –, no activity; 1, geraniin; 2, corilagin; 3, shikimic acid; 4, quadrangularic acid M; 5, gentamycin.
Table 2. Antioxidant activity of compounds isolated from A. wilkesiana.
Downloaded by [RMIT University] at 05:14 14 March 2015
Compound Geraniin Corilagin Shikimic acid Quadrangulare acid M Gallic acid
IC50 (mg/mL) N/A 53 ^ 0.6a N/A N/A 3.04 ^ 0.1b
Notes: N/A, no activity; data expressed as mean and standard error of three determinations. Data with different lower case letters are significantly different ( p , 0.05).
scavenging activity of 53 mg/mL (Table 2), which is in agreement with a previous report by Tabata et al. (2008). This activity is lower than the activity of gallic acid. This study identifies for the first time shikimic acid (3) as a major constituent of the leaves of A. wilkesiana. Rao and Merugu (2012) also reported that shikimic acid was the major constituent isolated from Ludwigia alternifolia Linn leaves. As reported in Table 1, shikimic acid showed antibacterial activity against three of the four strains tested with MIC 50 mg/mL and was bactericidal against K. pneumoniae at 50 mg/mL; however, this activity was lower than the standard drug (Table 1). The antibacterial activity of shikimic acid has been previously reported by Zeng et al. (2012). Shikimic acid did not show any antioxidant activity (Table 2) and, accordingly, in the literature there is no report of its antioxidant activity. As shown in Table 1, quadrangularic acid M (4) inhibited the growth of E. coli (35218), S. aureus (33591), methiciline-resistant S. aureus (25923) and K. pneumoniae (700603). The inhibitory activity on the tested organisms was lower than the standard drug (Table 1). It exhibited bactericidal activity against K. pneumoniae (700603) at 50 mg/mL. It did not exhibit any antioxidant activity (Table 2). 3. Conclusion In conclusion, we have found that the antioxidant activity of A. wilkesiana extract is mainly ascribable to corilagin, while its antibacterial activity should be due to shikimic acid, quadrangularic acid M, geraniin and corilagin. Supplementary material Experimental materials relating to this article are available online, alongside Figure S1. Acknowledgement NMR and MS spectra were obtained at ‘Centro Interdipartimentale di Servizio di Analisi Strumentale at the University of Naples Federico II’.
4
C.P. Anokwuru et al.
Downloaded by [RMIT University] at 05:14 14 March 2015
References Adesina SK, Idowu O, Ogundaini AO, Oladimeji H, Olugbade TA. 2000. Antimicrobial constituents of the leaves of Acalypha wilkesiana and Acalypha hispida. Phytother Res. 14:371–374. Anokwuru CP, Adaramola FB, Akinrinbola D, Fagbemi E, Onikoyi F. 2012. Antioxidant and anti-denaturing activities of defatted and non-defatted methanolic extracts of three medicinal plants in Nigeria. Research. 4:56–62. Banskota AH, Tezuka Y, Tran KQ, Tanaka K, Saiki I, Kadota S. 2000. Thirteen novel cycloartane-type triterpenes from Combretum quadrangulare. J Nat Prod. 63:57– 64. Ezekiel CN, Anokwuru CP, Nsofor E, Odusanya OA, Adebanjo O. 2009. Antimicrobial activity of the methanolic and crude alkaloid extracts of Acalypha wilkesiana. Res J Microbiol. 4:269– 277. Gotep J, Agada G, Gbise D, Chollom S. 2010. Antibacterial activity of ethanolic extract of Acalypha wilkesiana leaves growing in Jos, Plateau State, Nigeria. Malays J. Microbiol. 6:69–74. Gutierrez-Lugo M, Singh MP, Maiese WM, Timmermann BN. 2002. New antimicrobial cycloartane triterpenes from Acalypha communis. J Nat Prod. 65:872–875. Haruna MT, Anokwuru CP, Akeredolu AA, Akinsemolu AA, Alabi OA. 2013. Antibacterial and antifungal activity of Acalypha wilkesiana. Eur J Med Plants. 3:52–64. Lin S, Wang C, Lu Y, Wud W, Hou W. 2008. Antioxidant, anti-semicarbazide-sensitive amine oxidase, and antihypertensiveactivities of geraniin isolated from Phyllanthus urinaria. Food Chem. Toxicol. 46:2485 –2492. Onocha PA, Olusanya TOB. 2010. Antimicrobial and anthelmintic Evaluation of Nigerian Euphorbiaceae Plants 3: Acalypha wilkesiana. Afr Sci. 11:85–89. Onyeike EN, Ikewuchi JC, Ikewuchi CC, Uwakwe AA. 2010. Quantitative high performance liquid chromatography analysis of simple terpenes, carotenoids, phytosterols and flavonoids in the leaves of Acalypha wilkesiana Muell Arg. Pac J Sci Technol. 11:480–487. Rao AS, Merugu RJ. 2012. Shikimic acid as a major compound from Ludwigia alternifolia Linn. Pharmcognosy. 3:121–122. Tabata H, Katsube T, Tsuma T, Ohta Y, Imawaka N, Utsumi T. 2008. Isolation and evaluation of the radical-scavenging activity of the antioxidants in the leaves of an edible plant, Mallotus japonicus. Food Chem. 109:64–71. Xiao H, Tsang S, Qin H, Choi FFK, Yang Z, Han Q, Chen H, Xu H, Shen H, Lu A, Bian Z. 2013. A bioactivity-guided study on the anti-diarrhoeal activity of Polygonum chinense Linn. J Ethnopharmacol. 149:499–505. Zeng W, He Q, Sun Q, Zhong K, Gao H. 2012. Antibacterial activity of water-soluble extract from pine needles of Cedrus deodara. Int J Food Microbiol. 153:78–84.
