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An Investigation of the Associations Between Contingent Self-Worth and Aspirations Among Iranian University Students a
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Milad SabzehAra , Yuna Lee Ferguson , Mehdi Reza Sarafraz & Mostafa Mohammadi
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University of Tehran
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Pennsylvania State University Shenango
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University of Geneva Accepted author version posted online: 20 Sep 2013.Published online: 13 Dec 2013.
To cite this article: Milad SabzehAra , Yuna Lee Ferguson , Mehdi Reza Sarafraz & Mostafa Mohammadi (2014) An Investigation of the Associations Between Contingent Self-Worth and Aspirations Among Iranian University Students, The Journal of Social Psychology, 154:1, 59-73, DOI: 10.1080/00224545.2013.843501 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00224545.2013.843501
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The Journal of Social Psychology, 154: 59–73, 2014 Copyright © Taylor & Francis Group, LLC ISSN: 0022-4545 print / 1940-1183 online DOI: 10.1080/00224545.2013.843501
An Investigation of the Associations Between Contingent Self-Worth and Aspirations Among Iranian University Students MILAD SABZEHARA Downloaded by [Boston College] at 02:50 30 November 2014
University of Tehran
YUNA LEE FERGUSON Pennsylvania State University Shenango
MEHDI REZA SARAFRAZ University of Tehran
MOSTAFA MOHAMMADI University of Geneva
ABSTRACT. This study investigated the novel associations between intrinsic and extrinsic aspirations and internal and external domains of contingent self-worth among a sample of 502 Iranian university students. We found a meaningful pattern showing that intrinsic aspirations were positively associated with internal domains, whereas extrinsic aspirations were positively associated with external domains. Our survey data also suggested that the factor structure of the Aspiration Index, as well as the factor structure of the Contingencies of Self-Worth Scale in our Iranian sample were consistent with factor structures of foreign samples. Finally, the types of aspirations and domains of contingencies of self-worth meaningfully predicted variables related to well-being, confirming previous research. We discuss the nature of the associations between the aspirations and the domains of contingent self-worth. Keywords: aspirations, contingencies of self-worth, Iranians, well-being
ACCORDING TO SELF-DETERMINATION THEORY (SDT), individuals who satisfy their basic psychological needs for autonomy, relatedness, and competence experience greater subjective well-being (Deci & Ryan, 1985; Ryan & Deci, 2000; Sheldon, Gunz, Nichols, & Ferguson, 2010). One way in which individuals can satisfy these needs is by adopting goals or aspirations directly relevant to the needs (Kasser & Ryan, 1996; Sheldon et al., 2010). Past research on self-determination theory has distinguished between two categories of aspirations: intrinsic and Address correspondence to Yuna Lee Ferguson, Pennsylvania State University Shenango, Department of Psychology, 147 Shenango Ave., Sharon, PA 16148, USA. E-mail: [email protected]
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extrinsic (Kasser & Ryan, 1993, 1996). Focusing on intrinsic aspirations (e.g., personal growth, community contributions, meaningful relationships) have been shown to positively predict subjective well-being (Kasser & Ryan, 1993, 1996; Sheldon et al., 2010; Martos & Kopp, 2012). Intrinsic aspirations of personal growth, community contributions, and meaningful relationships bring about experiences of autonomy, relatedness, and competence. For instance, donating time to a community garden may satisfy autonomy by allowing an individual to enact a personal value, satisfy relatedness by encouraging the individual to form bonds with other gardeners, and lastly, satisfy competence by mastering one’s gardening techniques. In contrast, focusing on extrinsic aspirations (e.g., image, fame, and wealth) does not appear to predict well-being even when those aspirations are achieved (Kasser & Ryan, 2001; Ryan et al, 1999; Sheldon & Kasser, 1998) and may result in negative or unhealthy psychological outcomes (Duriez, 2011; Henderson-King & Mitchell, 2011; Van Hiel, Cornelis, & Roets, 2010). Early studies of aspirations (e.g., Kasser & Ryan, 1996) measured individuals’ orientation towards extrinsic and intrinsic aspirations using ratings of importance of the aspiration, likelihood of attaining the aspirations in the future, and the extent to which the aspirations have been already attained. Much of the research on aspirations has focused on ratings of importance of aspiration types; however, perceived likelihood of attainment in the future and perceived current attainment have also shown to be related to differential outcomes. Perceived attainment of intrinsic aspirations is associated with greater well-being, whereas perceived attainment of extrinsic aspirations was not (Kasser & Ryan, 2001; Ryan et al, 1999; Sheldon & Kasser, 1998). Past research on aspirations has focused on factors that predict how individuals adopt certain aspirations, including environmental factors, such as nurture and warmth from mothers (i.e., Kasser, Ryan, Zax, & Sameroff, 1995) and autonomy-support (Vansteenkiste, Simons, Lens, Sheldon, & Deci, 2004), that influence how individuals adopt intrinsic vs. extrinsic aspirations. Yet another possibility is that individuals’ desire to maintain their sense of self-worth could be implicated in adopting these aspirations. That is, adopting certain aspirations over others could stem from concerns individuals have with their self-worth. For example, individuals may have their sense of self-worth contingent upon success in certain life domains, such as physical appearance and academic competence. These individuals may then adopt relevant life aspirations, such as cultivating an attractive image or succeeding academically, as guiding posts. If this is the case, we should expect a meaningful pattern of associations among life domains and life aspirations. In the current study, we demonstrate that the aspirations described by SDT share a link with the domains of contingent self-worth (CSW) proposed by Crocker and colleagues (Crocker, Luhtanen, Cooper, & Bouvrette, 2003; Crocker, Luhtanen, & Sommers, 2004; Luhtanen & Crocker, 2005). The seven domains of CSW include academic competence, having God’s love, family support, virtue, competition, appearance, and approval from others. Research on college students suggests that these domains have a self-regulatory function (Crocker et al., 2003) by directing the way we spend our energy and time. Although Crocker and colleagues note that having one’s sense of self-worth hinge on successes and failure of these domains could ultimately lead to a less stable sense of self-worth (Crocker et al., 2003), psychological outcomes differ based on the level of control individuals have in each domain. Domains including approval from others, appearance, competition, and academic competence are labeled as “external contingencies” because the outcomes of success or failure depend on factors external to the individual (Crocker & Wolfe, 2001). On the other hand, how well one succeeds in domains including God’s love, virtue, and family
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support, labeled “internal contingencies,” are more internally evaluated and less conditionally satisfied compared to the external contingencies. When self-worth hinges on external contingencies, individuals report indicators of lower well-being, such as symptoms of depression and neuroticism (Crocker et al., 2003; Crocker & Wolfe, 2001; Luhtanen & Crocker, 2005; Sargent, Crocker, & Luhtanen, 2006). However, making self-worth dependent on internal contingencies does not seem to result in similar negative consequences. The detrimental effects of contingent self-worth on well-being are thought to be partly due to the type of motivation that is engaged when carrying out behaviors to succeed in the domains of contingency. Crocker and colleagues (2003) point out that individuals who seek to improve their self-worth via successes in various domains are likely non-autonomously motivated, because they are seeking an outcome that is extrinsic to the behavior (e.g., an individual studying to earn good grades as a way to bolster self-worth rather than studying for the enjoyment of learning itself). Furthermore, such contingencies on one’s self-worth may invite guilt and internal pressure, which are characteristics of introjected motivation, a form of extrinsic motivation. In general, individuals who engage in behavior and tasks based on controlled motivation (i.e., introjected and external) report lower well-being compared to individuals who are autonomously motivated (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Connecting the Domains of Contingent Self-Worth and Aspiration Types To be sure, aspirations are qualitatively different from the domains of CSW. Contingent self-worth reflects individuals’ concern with living up to cultural expectations and their tendency to evaluate themselves according to successes and failures in various life domains (Crocker & Wolfe, 2001). An individual whose self-worth is highly contingent upon academic competence will stake her sense of self-worth on the grades she receives during a semester. Aspirations, on the other hand, do not involve such self-evaluations and concerns about self-worth. Rather, they reflect individuals’ global values and personal goals and are pursued to satisfy the basic needs. In contrast to the individual whose self-worth is contingent upon academic success, an individual who is focused on the intrinsic goal of personal growth might think about whether taking certain classes in college will further her ability to think critically and complexly. Thus, fluctuations in self-esteem are an inherent outcome to the successes and failures within the domains of contingent self-worth. The notion of self-esteem fluctuations is not integral to the concept of aspirations, as they are not based on a desire to enhance one’s sense of self-worth. Another point of difference is that having a highly contingent self-worth may result in behaviors that are inauthentic to the self—i.e., behaviors that are enacted by introjected motivation (Crocker & Park, 2004). While individuals pursuing aspirations may be driven by introjected motivation, type of motivation is thought to be orthogonal to the type of aspiration. For instance, it is possible to have introjected or intrinsic motivation in pursuing goals related to meaningful relationships. In sum, contingencies of self-worth and types of aspirations are conceptually distinct. Despite these differences between aspirations and domains of CSW, in the current research, we propose that there are some conceptual associations between the two. Specifically, this research aims to demonstrate that the domains of contingent self-worth somewhat align with the types of personal aspirations assumed to predict positive states, as posited by SDT. We propose that external contingencies align with extrinsic aspirations and that internal contingencies appear to
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relate to intrinsic aspirations. Approval from others, competition, and appearance seem to be similar to the extrinsic aspirations of being admired by others and having an attractive image (fame and image goals). Concerns with approval from others are also thought to underlie the desire for wealth (Kasser, 2002). Furthermore, maintaining God’s love is relevant to the goal of personal growth, and virtue may be associated with both personal growth and community contributions. Perceiving family support is likely to be associated with the aspiration of having meaningful relationships. Given that domains of self-worth have a self-regulatory function and guide the way individuals direct their effort and time, those whose self-worth is highly dependent on external domains, such as approval from others, may be more likely to pursue the extrinsic aspiration of attaining fame or physical beauty (Kasser, 2002). Similarly, self-worth contingent on internal domains would likely predict the pursuit of intrinsic aspirations. Thus, these domains of contingency may narrow individuals’ focus onto different types of aspirations. Another indication of the connection between the contingencies and the types of aspirations is that they both relate to indicators of mental well-being. As reviewed above, various studies have independently documented the association between internal contingencies or intrinsic aspirations and higher well-being. External contingencies and extrinsic aspirations do not predict positive well-being, and may even be associated with poorer well-being. These findings lend further support to the possibility that the content of the aspirations as described by SDT are associated with domains of contingency. Furthermore, there has already been some discussion of the commonalities between SDT and the concept of CSW (see Crocker & Park, 2004; Ryan & Brown, 2003). Much of this discussion seems to center around the motivational underpinnings of pursuing self-esteem (Crocker & Park, 2004). Crocker and colleagues point out that individuals who seek to improve their self-worth via successes in various domains are likely non-autonomously motivated, because they are seeking an outcome that is extrinsic to the behavior. Such contingencies on one’s self-worth may also invite guilt and internal pressure, which are characteristics of introjected motivation, a form of extrinsic motivation. In general, individuals who engage in behavior and tasks based on controlled motivation (i.e., introjected and external) report lower well-being compared to individuals who are autonomously motivated (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Having controlled (non-autonomous) motivation towards their actions thwarts individuals’ experience of autonomy, a basic psychological need necessary for well-being (Deci & Ryan, 2000). Thus, when individuals are preoccupied with a desire to be successful in the various domains of self-worth, they may be preventing themselves from satisfying psychological experiences that are ultimately responsible for their well-being. Confirming Factor Structures in an Iranian Sample A second goal of this research is to test whether this body of research on the domains of CSW and types of aspirations can be generalized to individuals from diverse populations. Previous research has shown that the factor structure of aspirations is similar across many nations (see Grouzet et al., 2005). In this research, 11 different types of aspirations were examined such as aspirations for hedonism, safety, as well as the extrinsic and intrinsic aspirations that are of focus in the current study. Thus, of particular interest was whether CSW and various domains are relevant to Iranian college students. Individuals from the Middle Eastern region of the world have been historically underrepresented in psychological research in general.
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Also, as a region thought to be more oriented towards collectivist values than individualist values (Ali, Taqi, & Krishnan, 1997; Bochner & Hesketh, 1994), it is unclear whether Iranians place a similar level of importance on seeking self-esteem as do Americans and Europeans. Past research suggests that individuals from collectivist backgrounds are more likely to derive their sense of satisfaction from their group’s achievements and successes rather than those by the individuals themselves (Heine, Lehman, Markus, & Kitayama, 1999; Triandis, 2002). Thus, it is possible that individual self-esteem is less important to one’s well-being among Iranians in contrast to Americans or Europeans. On the other hand, some research on non-Western samples has thus far demonstrated that self-esteem is important to well-being (Sheldon, Elliot, Kim, & Kasser, 2001). Furthermore, the Contingencies of Self-Worth Scale (CSWS; Crocker et al., 2003) has been validated among samples from Lebanon (Kazarian, 2009) and Japan (Uchida, 2008), suggesting that individuals in these nations also reliably and meaningfully vary in their contingent self-worth. The current study attempted to contribute to this small but growing body of literature. Based on this research, we predicted that the factor structures that emerged with data from our Iranian sample would be similar to those previously reported based on Western samples. Associations With Well-Being-Related Variables In addition to verifying the factor structures, we examined the associations between the domains of CSW and types of aspirations and indicators of positive psychological states, including selfcompassion, self-esteem, narcissism, and integrative self-knowledge. This examination was to ensure that the constructs of CSW and aspirations related to well-being-related measures in a predictable pattern. Self-compassion refers to people’s tendency to react toward themselves with kindness and tenderness rather than judgment and self-criticism, especially in the face of failures, personal flaws and imperfections (Neff, 2003a, 2003b). Self-compassion has been proposed as an alternative to the potential costly pursuit of self-esteem and has been shown to be associated with various indicators of well-being (Neff, 2003a, 2003b). Self-esteem, individuals’ overall evaluation of themselves, has been examined as a marker of positive well-being in a great deal of research (Crocker & Wolfe, 2001; Trzesniewski et al., 2010). Integrative self-knowledge refers to individuals’ awareness of themselves as a result of a continuing effort to understand and integrate their past and current experiences to their sense of self (Ghorbani, Watson, & Hargis, 2008). Individuals who are high in integrative self-knowledge also report higher wellbeing and satisfaction of basic psychological needs, as well as lower anxiety and depressive symptoms (Ghorbani et al., 2008).In contrast to self-esteem, narcissism, an overly positive evaluation of oneself, does not appear to predict experiencing heightened well-being when controlling for self-esteem (Zuckerman & O’Loughlin, 2009). Furthermore, individuals who are narcissistic are less empathetic to the plight of others (Campbell, Rudich, & Sedikides, 2002) and experience greater relationship problems (Campbell & Foster, 2002). Altogether, self-compassion, self-esteem, integrative self-knowledge, and narcissism are considered to be indicators of mental well-being. Their associations with aspirations and CSW were examined to assess the validity of these constructs among Iranian university students. In sum, we posed two main predictions. First, we predicted that importance placed on internal contingencies of self-worth would be positively associated with a focus on intrinsic aspirations, comprising of importance placed on aspirations, perceived likelihood of achieving the aspiration, and current level of attainment of aspirations. Holding external contingencies, on the other hand,
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would be positively associated with a focus on extrinsic aspirations. Second, we predicted that the constructs of contingencies of self-worth and aspirations would be similarly understood among Iranian university students. Specifically, we predicted that the factor structures of these constructs based on ratings by our Iranian sample would be similar to those previously reported by Kasser and Ryan (1996) and Crocker and colleagues (2003) on American samples. The identification of the Iranian factor structure was followed by an examination of factor correlations with the various psychological variables. We expected that intrinsic aspirations and internal contingencies, rather than extrinsic aspirations and external contingencies, would be positively associated with markers of well-being.
METHOD Participants Students at the Langaroud Payame Nour University in Iran served as research participants. The sample included a total of 502 participants (334 women, 164 men, and 4 unreported). Average age in this sample was 21 years (SD = 3.35). The participants were approached in classrooms of 10-20 students and given information about the study, including the types of questions asked in the survey packet. All classrooms were visited at the university. Participation in this study was completely voluntary without compensation, anonymous, and in compliance with institutional ethical guidelines at the university. The participants represent about half of the students at the university as well as a wide variety of disciplines. Procedure and Materials The scales used in this study appeared in a questionnaire booklet that was completed in small groups in classroom settings. All scales were translated from English into Persian. The Aspiration Index (AI) and the CSWS were translated by two Persian-English speaking individuals who were familiar with psychology. In these procedures, one individual translated AI and CSWS items from English into Persian, and then another translated them back into English. Several other experts in the psychology also reviewed the Persian translation of the two scales to ensure that the translations were correct. The back translations of AI and CSWS scales were also evaluated by the researchers who published the original scales (i.e., Drs. Kasser and Crocker). Differences between original and back-translated statements were rare, carefully analyzed, and easily resolved when necessary through revisions in the Persian translation. The other scales used in the study were translated using a similar approach or were translated from English into Persian by bilingual speakers. The booklet contained the following scales, in addition to background questions regarding the age and gender of the participants. Integrative Self-Knowledge Scale (ISK; Ghorbani et al., 2008). The ISK is composed of 12 items (α = .74, M = 3.28, SD = .59) which were rated on a scale ranging from 1 (largely untrue) to 5 (largely true). An example item states, “If I need to, I can reflect about myself and clearly understand the feelings and attitudes behind my past behaviors.” Scores were computed by averaging across the 12 ratings.
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TABLE 1 Descriptive Statistics for the Subscales of Aspirations Index and Contingencies of Self-Worth Scale
Extrinsic aspirations Importance Likelihood Attainment Intrinsic aspirations Importance Likelihood Attainment CSWS-E Appearance Competition Academics Approval CSWS-I Virtue Family support God’s love
Cronbach’s α
M
SD
.84 .84 .84
4.77 4.52 3.55
1.09 .86 .86
.86 .87 .88 .76 .58 .65 .60 .66 .79 .71 .59 .75
6.38 5.65 4.65 4.61 3.91 5.52 5.15 3.84 5.78 5.48 5.65 6.15
.60 .69 .86 .62 .93 .75 .80 1.18 .61 .92 .78 .79
Note. CSWS-E = The external subscale of the Contingencies of Self-Worth Scale, CSWS-I = The internal subscale of the Contingencies of Self-Worth Scale.
Aspirations Index (Kasser & Ryan, 1996). The AI measures seven aspirations: wealth, fame, image, personal growth, meaningful relationships, community contribution, and physical health. Each aspiration is represented by five specifically worded life goals (examples include “to achieve the ‘look’ I’ve been after” and “to keep up with fashions in hair and clothing” for the image aspiration). For each life goal, participants were asked to rate three aspects, including importance (“How important is this [goal] to you?”), the likelihood of achieving the aspiration (“How likely is it that this [goal] will happen in your future?”), and the extent to which it has been attained already (“How much have you already attained this goal?”), on a scale ranging from 1 (not at all) to 7 (very). Thus, there were a total of 105 items (7 aspirations × 5 life goals × 3 aspects per goal). Together, these three aspects comprise an individual’s orientation towards each type of aspiration (Kasser & Ryan, 1996). The importance, likelihood, and attainment ratings were calculated separately for each group of extrinsic (i.e., wealth, fame, and image) and intrinsic aspirations (i.e., personal growth, meaningful relationships, and community contributions).1 See Table 1 for descriptive statistics regarding this measure. Contingencies of Self-Worth Scale (Crocker et al., 2003). The seven domains of contingency were assessed by five items each in the CSWS, for a total of 35 items. The items were rated on a scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). Based on the results of the confirmatory factor analysis (see below), the domains generally corresponded to the original scale. See Table 1 for descriptive statistics regarding the domains. For our primary analyses, we calculated mean scores by averaging across the means for the external contingencies (i.e., appearance, competition, academic competence, and others’ approval; α = .76, M = 4.61, SD =
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.62) and for the internal contingencies (i.e., virtue, family support, and God’s love; α = .79, M = 5.78, SD = .61) following the method used in Collins and Stukas (2008).
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Self-Compassion Scale-Short Form (SCS-SF; Raes, Pommier, Neff, & Van Gucht, 2011). The SCS-SF assesses individuals’ tendency to be self-compassionate, and the items ask about individuals’ tendency to be kind to oneself, to be mindful, and to see failures as affecting everyone. Participants rate 12 items reflecting self-compassion (α = .68, M = 3.11, SD = .57) on a 1 (almost never) to 5 (almost always) scale. The ratings were averaged across the items to calculate participants’ scores. Margolis-Thomas Measure of Narcissism (MTNS; Margolis & Thomas, 1980). We used the MTNS in our study, which includes 24 similar forced-choice items (α = .61, M = 1.29, SD = .13). In each item, the respondent must choose between two phrases, of which one is non-narcissistic (for example, “It does not matter that I have a decent appearance at all times”; coded as 1), and the other narcissistic (for example, “I care about having a decent appearance at all times”; coded as 2). With reverse scoring of some of the items, higher mean scores indicate higher narcissism. While MTNS is a less commonly used measure of narcissism, we thought it would be more suitable for our purposes, as it focuses exclusively on the negative aspects of narcissism. The Narcissistic Personality Inventory (Raskin & Hall, 1979), for instance, includes items that measure some potentially adaptive aspects of narcissism, such as self-admiration and perception of oneself as a leader. Furthermore, the MTNS had already been translated into Persian and found to have good psychometric properties in an Iranian sample (Ghorbani, Watson, Hamzavy, & Weathington, 2010). Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSE; Rosenberg, 1965). We included this commonly used measure of self-esteem. Ten items assessed participants’ level of self-esteem (α = .79, M = 3.59, SD = .62) based on a rating scale that ranged from 1 (largely untrue) to 5 (largely true). The ratings were averaged across the items to calculate participants’ scores.
RESULTS Data Analytic Strategy Before testing the first hypothesis regarding the associations between the aspiration types and contingency domains, we conducted a set of factor analyses to validate the AI and CSWS in our Iranian sample. After confirming the factor structures of each measure, we computed scores representing participants’ rated importance of intrinsic and extrinsic aspirations, likelihood of achieving these aspirations in the future, and the extent to which these aspirations have already been attained. We also computed scores representing the internal and external subscales of CSWS. Using these computed scores, we examined the associations among aspirations, domain contingencies, and indicators of mental well-being.
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Examining the Factor Structures of AI and CSWS In order to investigate the factor structures of AI and CSWS in the Iranian sample, we first conducted a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) for each scale using maximum likelihood with robust standard estimates. Based on the recommendations of Hu and Bentler (1999), McDonald and Ho (2002), and Hooper, Coughlan, and Mullen (2008), evaluations of model fit with our participants’ data focused on the Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR), the Comparative Fit Index (CFI), and the Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA). According to the guidelines stated by these researchers, the proposed factor model displays adequate fit if the SRMR is less than .08, CFI is .90 or greater, and RMSEA is less than .06. Based on these indices, results showed that the importance of intrinsic and extrinsic aspirations (χ 2 (55) = 1322.78, p < .001, CFI = .94, RMSEA = .05, SRMR = .06), likelihood of intrinsic and extrinsic aspirations (χ 2 (55) = 1207.90, p < .001, CFI = .95, RMSEA = .05, SRMR = .06), and attainment of intrinsic and extrinsic aspirations (χ 2 (55) = 1257.86, p < .001, CFI = .95, RMSEA = .05, SRMR= .06) did fit with the factor model reported by Kasser and Ryan (1996). The CSWS also appeared to fit the seven-factor model reported by Crocker and colleagues (2003), as the fit indices were close to the recommended standards (χ 2 (53) = 1723, p < .001, CFI = .87, RMSEA = .07, SRMR = .08).2 These results suggest that the factor structure of aspirations and the domains of contingencies of self-worth are similar in Iranians as in other previously examined samples. Associations Among AI and CSWS Domains To test the first hypothesis that intrinsic aspirations related positively with internal domains of self-worth and that extrinsic aspirations related positively with external domains of self-worth, we conducted Pearson correlation analyses (see Table 2). Results showed that the subscale of external contingencies of self-worth positively correlated with the importance (r = .42, p < .01), likelihood (r = .22, p < .01), and the attainment (r = .15, p < .01) of extrinsic aspirations. This pattern was not evident with intrinsic aspirations, although external contingencies positively correlated with importance of intrinsic aspirations (r = .13, p < .05). As predicted, internal contingencies of self-worth positively correlated with the importance (r = .45, p < .01), likelihood (r = .30, p < .01), and the attainment (r = .16, p < .01) of intrinsic aspirations, but it did not correlate with any of the aspects of extrinsic aspirations. As a whole, these results support the notion that the types of aspirations and domains of contingency may share a link. Examining Associations With Markers of Mental Well-Being We also examined whether intrinsic and extrinsic aspirations and the domains of contingency were correlated in an expected fashion with variables that have previously been associated with well-being. This allowed us to further test the validity of the AI and the CSWS in our sample, as well as replicate previous findings. Indeed, our correlational analyses (see Table 3) show that participants who valued intrinsic aspirations reported higher self-compassion (r = .13, p < .01), integrative self-knowledge (r = .19, p < .01), and self-esteem (r = .16, p < .01), as well as lower narcissism (r = –.23, p < .01). Participants’ ratings of likelihood and attainment of intrinsic aspirations showed a similar
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TABLE 2 Correlations Among Aspirations and Subscales of Contingent Self-Worth 1
2
3
4
5
6
Extrinsic aspirations 1. Importance 2. Likelihood 3. Attainment
1 .68∗∗ .49∗∗
1 .73∗∗
1
Intrinsic aspirations 4. Importance 5. Likelihood 6. Attainment
.29∗∗ .16∗∗ .10∗
.20∗∗ .48∗∗ .33∗∗
.01 .33∗∗ .57∗∗
1 .56∗∗ .26∗∗
1 .67∗∗
1
CSWS subscales 7. External 8. Internal
.42∗∗ .06
.22∗∗ .01
.15∗∗ −.01
.13∗ .45∗∗
−.02 .30∗∗
.00 .16∗∗
7
8
1 .34∗∗
1
Note. ∗ p < .05; ∗∗ p < .01.
pattern. In contrast, participants who value extrinsic aspirations reported lower self-compassion (r = −.11, p < .05) and integrative self-knowledge (r = –.19, p < .01), as well as higher narcissism (r = .29, p < .01). Valuing extrinsic aspirations did not significantly predict self-esteem, however. Although not predicted, likelihood of extrinsic aspirations positively correlated with self-compassion (r = .11, p < .05) and self-esteem (r = .19, p < .01), and attainment of extrinsic aspirations positively correlated with self-compassion (r = .16, p < .05), narcissism (r = .12, p < .05) and self-esteem (r = .18, p < .05). Past research has shown similar findings among likelihood and attainment of extrinsic aspirations with extraversion and subjective well-being (Romero, G´omez-Fraguela, & Villar, 2012). A possible reason for this pattern is explained in the discussion section.
TABLE 3 Correlations Between Aspirations/Domains of Contingent Self-Worth and Well-Being Outcomes
Extrinsic aspirations Importance Likelihood Attainment Intrinsic aspirations Importance Likelihood Attainment Subscales of contingency External Internal Note. ∗ p < .05; ∗∗ p < .01.
Self-compassion
Integrative self-knowledge
−.11∗ .11∗ .16∗
−.19∗∗ .04 .01
.29∗∗ .09 .12∗
−.06 .19∗∗ .18∗∗
.19∗∗ .25∗∗ .25∗∗
−.23∗∗ −.29∗∗ −.20∗∗
.15∗∗ .32∗∗ .32∗∗
.13∗∗ .27∗∗ .31∗∗ −.16∗∗ .02
−.12∗ .04
Narcissism
.29∗∗ −.19∗∗
Self-esteem
−.08 .04
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Our results also show that the external subscale of domains of contingency (competition, academic competence, approval from others, and appearance) negatively correlated with selfcompassion (r = –.16, p < .01) and integrative self-knowledge (r = –.12, p < .05) and positively correlated with narcissism (r = .29, p < .01), confirming previous research. In contrast, the internal subscale domains of contingency (virtue, family support, God’s love) do not appear to be harmful to well-being, as expected, although the internal subscales did not significantly predict self-compassion or integrative self-knowledge. The internal subscale negatively associated with narcissism (r = –.19, p < .01), however. Taken together, these correlations replicate previous findings that external contingencies may be more harmful to well-being than internal contingencies.
DISCUSSION The current research investigated two main questions. First, are the domains of contingent self-worth meaningfully related to the categories of aspirations proposed by self-determination theory? Second, are the instruments used to assess contingencies of self-worth and aspirations valid in a sample of Iranian university students? Our findings reveal some important information addressing these questions. Regarding the relationship between aspirations and domains of contingent self-worth, we found that, on the whole, an orientation towards intrinsic aspirations positively correlated with internal domains of contingent self-worth. Furthermore, an orientation towards extrinsic aspirations positively correlated with external domains. There are at least two possible reasons for these associations. One reason is that both aspirations and contingent self-worth are a part of a constellation of variables related to well-being, as suggested by previous work on these constructs. Thus, their associations may be reflecting shared variability of well-being without being inherently related. However, it is also possible that both aspirations and contingent self-worth are inherently intertwined, as we proposed earlier. When considering the content of the aspirations and the domains of contingency, we see some overlap between external domains and extrinsic aspirations and between internal domains and intrinsic aspirations. For instance, the extrinsic aspiration regarding popularity and fame seems reflected in the external domain of approval from others. Thus, when individuals perceive their success in external domains to be important to their self-worth, they may be more likely to pursue extrinsic aspirations. Pursuing extrinsic aspirations (versus intrinsic aspirations) may then lead to no measurable effect on one’s well-being, if not lowering well-being itself (Duriez, 2011; Henderson-King & Mitchell, 2011; Kasser, 2002; Kasser & Ryan, 1996; Van Hiel et al., 2010). Our findings thus extend previous research that has merged contingent self-worth and self-determination theory by demonstrating that the contingent self-worth may fuel the way individuals direct their attention and effort towards major personal aspirations. To our knowledge, while researchers have theorized that contingent self-worth invites controlled motivation, the similarities between the domains and the aspirations have not been fully explored. We also examined whether the AI and the CSWS are meaningful constructs among Iranian university students. The confirmatory factor analysis of the AI showed that its factor structure in the Iranian sample is similar to that of samples from the U.S. (Kasser & Ryan, 1996), Russia
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(Ryan et al., 1999), Germany (Schmuck, Kasser, & Ryan, 2000), South Korea (Kim, Kasser, & Lee, 2003) and Spain (Romero et al., 2012). Iranians, along with individuals from other nations, do distinguish between extrinsic and intrinsic aspirations, suggesting that the values contained in these aspirations may be universally recognized. Furthermore, the correlation analyses suggested that focusing on intrinsic aspirations (i.e., personal growth, meaningful relationships, and community contributions) positively predicted variables related to well-being, such as self-compassion, integrative self-knowledge, and selfesteem, and negatively predicted narcissism. In contrast, we saw an opposite pattern of correlations regarding importance placed on extrinsic aspirations (i.e., wealth, image, and fame). These results confirm previous findings regarding the associations between extrinsic and intrinsic aspirations and well-being (Kasser & Ryan, 1993, 1996; Sheldon et al., 2010; Martos & Kopp, 2011). We also saw that although importance of extrinsic aspirations was generally negatively associated with the well-being-related variables, this was not true of participants’ ratings of likelihood and attainment of extrinsic aspirations. The extent to which individuals were self-compassionate or had high self-esteem was associated with their perception that they were likely to achieve their extrinsic aspirations and to see themselves as already attaining these aspirations. One reason why this may be the case is that individuals who are high in self-esteem and self-compassion may take on a positive attitude towards their ability to succeed in aspirations in general, regardless of whether the aspirations are intrinsic or extrinsic. Past research shows that individuals who have positive expectations are more motivated to succeed in their goals and perceive themselves to be more capable of succeeding (Peterson, 2000; Taylor et al., 2000) and more likely to expend effort towards desired outcomes (Bandura, 1997; Maddux, Sherer, & Rogers, 1982). In addition to this explanation, an alternative explanation involving a different variable—control over the attainment of extrinsic goals—is also viable. Individuals who do not have control over circumstances of their lives that relate to achieving extrinsic goals and hence report low attainment of extrinsic goals may simultaneously be lower in well-being. Indeed, previous research suggests that individuals’ sense of control over their lives play a role in their well-being (Lachman & Weaver, 1998; Ryff, 1989). In any case, these results thus imply that the perceived importance of aspirations may be more sensitive predictors of well-being than the perceived likelihood or attainment of aspirations. The factor structure of the CSWS was also replicated in our sample, suggesting a sevenfactor structure previously reported (Crocker et al., 2003). Furthermore, we saw a distinction between the external and internal domains in the way they associated with variables related to well-being. Having one’s self-worth hinge upon external domains appeared to be more reliably predictive of lower well-being, confirming past research (Crocker et al., 2003; Crocker & Wolfe, 2001; Luhtanen & Crocker, 2003; Sargent et al., 2006). Again, this suggests that not all domains are equal in terms of their implications on well-being. However, given the lack of associations between the internal subscale and self-compassion, integrative self-knowledge, and self-esteem suggests that even contingent self-esteem on internal domains is not necessarily beneficial to well-being. Still, domains that depend more on external evaluations of success or failure are more likely to be harmful to well-being.
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Limitations and Future Directions Several limitations of this study may be addressed in future research. First, the current study relied on a convenience sample of university students. Thus, it is important to acknowledge the possibility that the results of this study do not necessarily represent Iranians in general. While university student samples are common in psychological research, it is nevertheless important to see if the results replicate with individuals from other demographic backgrounds, such as individuals from a wider age range and from other geographical locations. Replication of these results is especially important to better understand the factor structure of the domains of contingent self-worth among Iranians. A second important limitation is that the correlational nature of the study design prevents us from making any assumptions about causal relationships among the variables. For instance, it is impossible to know whether being self-compassionate and having high integrative selfknowledge leads individuals to feel that intrinsic aspirations are important based on this study or that viewing intrinsic aspirations as important (and possibly pursuing them) lead individuals to be more self-compassionate and more knowledgeable about themselves. Although causality cannot be inferred, past research has documented positive mental health outcomes related to the pursuit of intrinsic (relative to extrinsic) aspirations (Kasser & Ryan, 1993; 1996; Sheldon, Ryan, Deci, & Kasser, 2004), which suggest that the importance placed on intrinsic aspirations could affect individuals’ self-compassion and self-knowledge.
NOTES 1. Although physical health was included in this index, research shows that it is not clearly extrinsic or intrinsic (Kasser & Ryan, 1996). Thus, physical health was omitted from our analyses and discussion. 2. Additionally, we conducted an exploratory factor analysis (EFA) to examine an alternative structure of the CSWS. The resulting factor structure was less comprehensible, with some items loading onto different factors and the exclusion of an entire factor. The associations between the aspirations and the contingencies were very similar between the two factor structures; thus, for a more parsimonious presentation, we describe the results using the original scale.
AUTHOR NOTES Milad SabzehAra is affiliated with the University of Tehran. Yuna Lee Ferguson is affiliated with the Department of Psychology, Pennsylvania State University Shenango. Mehdi Reza Sarafraz is affiliated with the University of Tehran. Mostafa Mohammadi is affiliated with the University of Geneva.
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Received April 17, 2013 Accepted September 5, 2013
The Journal of Social Psychology Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/vsoc20
An Investigation of the Associations Between Contingent Self-Worth and Aspirations Among Iranian University Students a
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Milad SabzehAra , Yuna Lee Ferguson , Mehdi Reza Sarafraz & Mostafa Mohammadi
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University of Tehran
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Pennsylvania State University Shenango
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University of Geneva Accepted author version posted online: 20 Sep 2013.Published online: 13 Dec 2013.
To cite this article: Milad SabzehAra , Yuna Lee Ferguson , Mehdi Reza Sarafraz & Mostafa Mohammadi (2014) An Investigation of the Associations Between Contingent Self-Worth and Aspirations Among Iranian University Students, The Journal of Social Psychology, 154:1, 59-73, DOI: 10.1080/00224545.2013.843501 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00224545.2013.843501
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The Journal of Social Psychology, 154: 59–73, 2014 Copyright © Taylor & Francis Group, LLC ISSN: 0022-4545 print / 1940-1183 online DOI: 10.1080/00224545.2013.843501
An Investigation of the Associations Between Contingent Self-Worth and Aspirations Among Iranian University Students MILAD SABZEHARA Downloaded by [Boston College] at 02:50 30 November 2014
University of Tehran
YUNA LEE FERGUSON Pennsylvania State University Shenango
MEHDI REZA SARAFRAZ University of Tehran
MOSTAFA MOHAMMADI University of Geneva
ABSTRACT. This study investigated the novel associations between intrinsic and extrinsic aspirations and internal and external domains of contingent self-worth among a sample of 502 Iranian university students. We found a meaningful pattern showing that intrinsic aspirations were positively associated with internal domains, whereas extrinsic aspirations were positively associated with external domains. Our survey data also suggested that the factor structure of the Aspiration Index, as well as the factor structure of the Contingencies of Self-Worth Scale in our Iranian sample were consistent with factor structures of foreign samples. Finally, the types of aspirations and domains of contingencies of self-worth meaningfully predicted variables related to well-being, confirming previous research. We discuss the nature of the associations between the aspirations and the domains of contingent self-worth. Keywords: aspirations, contingencies of self-worth, Iranians, well-being
ACCORDING TO SELF-DETERMINATION THEORY (SDT), individuals who satisfy their basic psychological needs for autonomy, relatedness, and competence experience greater subjective well-being (Deci & Ryan, 1985; Ryan & Deci, 2000; Sheldon, Gunz, Nichols, & Ferguson, 2010). One way in which individuals can satisfy these needs is by adopting goals or aspirations directly relevant to the needs (Kasser & Ryan, 1996; Sheldon et al., 2010). Past research on self-determination theory has distinguished between two categories of aspirations: intrinsic and Address correspondence to Yuna Lee Ferguson, Pennsylvania State University Shenango, Department of Psychology, 147 Shenango Ave., Sharon, PA 16148, USA. E-mail: [email protected]
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extrinsic (Kasser & Ryan, 1993, 1996). Focusing on intrinsic aspirations (e.g., personal growth, community contributions, meaningful relationships) have been shown to positively predict subjective well-being (Kasser & Ryan, 1993, 1996; Sheldon et al., 2010; Martos & Kopp, 2012). Intrinsic aspirations of personal growth, community contributions, and meaningful relationships bring about experiences of autonomy, relatedness, and competence. For instance, donating time to a community garden may satisfy autonomy by allowing an individual to enact a personal value, satisfy relatedness by encouraging the individual to form bonds with other gardeners, and lastly, satisfy competence by mastering one’s gardening techniques. In contrast, focusing on extrinsic aspirations (e.g., image, fame, and wealth) does not appear to predict well-being even when those aspirations are achieved (Kasser & Ryan, 2001; Ryan et al, 1999; Sheldon & Kasser, 1998) and may result in negative or unhealthy psychological outcomes (Duriez, 2011; Henderson-King & Mitchell, 2011; Van Hiel, Cornelis, & Roets, 2010). Early studies of aspirations (e.g., Kasser & Ryan, 1996) measured individuals’ orientation towards extrinsic and intrinsic aspirations using ratings of importance of the aspiration, likelihood of attaining the aspirations in the future, and the extent to which the aspirations have been already attained. Much of the research on aspirations has focused on ratings of importance of aspiration types; however, perceived likelihood of attainment in the future and perceived current attainment have also shown to be related to differential outcomes. Perceived attainment of intrinsic aspirations is associated with greater well-being, whereas perceived attainment of extrinsic aspirations was not (Kasser & Ryan, 2001; Ryan et al, 1999; Sheldon & Kasser, 1998). Past research on aspirations has focused on factors that predict how individuals adopt certain aspirations, including environmental factors, such as nurture and warmth from mothers (i.e., Kasser, Ryan, Zax, & Sameroff, 1995) and autonomy-support (Vansteenkiste, Simons, Lens, Sheldon, & Deci, 2004), that influence how individuals adopt intrinsic vs. extrinsic aspirations. Yet another possibility is that individuals’ desire to maintain their sense of self-worth could be implicated in adopting these aspirations. That is, adopting certain aspirations over others could stem from concerns individuals have with their self-worth. For example, individuals may have their sense of self-worth contingent upon success in certain life domains, such as physical appearance and academic competence. These individuals may then adopt relevant life aspirations, such as cultivating an attractive image or succeeding academically, as guiding posts. If this is the case, we should expect a meaningful pattern of associations among life domains and life aspirations. In the current study, we demonstrate that the aspirations described by SDT share a link with the domains of contingent self-worth (CSW) proposed by Crocker and colleagues (Crocker, Luhtanen, Cooper, & Bouvrette, 2003; Crocker, Luhtanen, & Sommers, 2004; Luhtanen & Crocker, 2005). The seven domains of CSW include academic competence, having God’s love, family support, virtue, competition, appearance, and approval from others. Research on college students suggests that these domains have a self-regulatory function (Crocker et al., 2003) by directing the way we spend our energy and time. Although Crocker and colleagues note that having one’s sense of self-worth hinge on successes and failure of these domains could ultimately lead to a less stable sense of self-worth (Crocker et al., 2003), psychological outcomes differ based on the level of control individuals have in each domain. Domains including approval from others, appearance, competition, and academic competence are labeled as “external contingencies” because the outcomes of success or failure depend on factors external to the individual (Crocker & Wolfe, 2001). On the other hand, how well one succeeds in domains including God’s love, virtue, and family
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support, labeled “internal contingencies,” are more internally evaluated and less conditionally satisfied compared to the external contingencies. When self-worth hinges on external contingencies, individuals report indicators of lower well-being, such as symptoms of depression and neuroticism (Crocker et al., 2003; Crocker & Wolfe, 2001; Luhtanen & Crocker, 2005; Sargent, Crocker, & Luhtanen, 2006). However, making self-worth dependent on internal contingencies does not seem to result in similar negative consequences. The detrimental effects of contingent self-worth on well-being are thought to be partly due to the type of motivation that is engaged when carrying out behaviors to succeed in the domains of contingency. Crocker and colleagues (2003) point out that individuals who seek to improve their self-worth via successes in various domains are likely non-autonomously motivated, because they are seeking an outcome that is extrinsic to the behavior (e.g., an individual studying to earn good grades as a way to bolster self-worth rather than studying for the enjoyment of learning itself). Furthermore, such contingencies on one’s self-worth may invite guilt and internal pressure, which are characteristics of introjected motivation, a form of extrinsic motivation. In general, individuals who engage in behavior and tasks based on controlled motivation (i.e., introjected and external) report lower well-being compared to individuals who are autonomously motivated (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Connecting the Domains of Contingent Self-Worth and Aspiration Types To be sure, aspirations are qualitatively different from the domains of CSW. Contingent self-worth reflects individuals’ concern with living up to cultural expectations and their tendency to evaluate themselves according to successes and failures in various life domains (Crocker & Wolfe, 2001). An individual whose self-worth is highly contingent upon academic competence will stake her sense of self-worth on the grades she receives during a semester. Aspirations, on the other hand, do not involve such self-evaluations and concerns about self-worth. Rather, they reflect individuals’ global values and personal goals and are pursued to satisfy the basic needs. In contrast to the individual whose self-worth is contingent upon academic success, an individual who is focused on the intrinsic goal of personal growth might think about whether taking certain classes in college will further her ability to think critically and complexly. Thus, fluctuations in self-esteem are an inherent outcome to the successes and failures within the domains of contingent self-worth. The notion of self-esteem fluctuations is not integral to the concept of aspirations, as they are not based on a desire to enhance one’s sense of self-worth. Another point of difference is that having a highly contingent self-worth may result in behaviors that are inauthentic to the self—i.e., behaviors that are enacted by introjected motivation (Crocker & Park, 2004). While individuals pursuing aspirations may be driven by introjected motivation, type of motivation is thought to be orthogonal to the type of aspiration. For instance, it is possible to have introjected or intrinsic motivation in pursuing goals related to meaningful relationships. In sum, contingencies of self-worth and types of aspirations are conceptually distinct. Despite these differences between aspirations and domains of CSW, in the current research, we propose that there are some conceptual associations between the two. Specifically, this research aims to demonstrate that the domains of contingent self-worth somewhat align with the types of personal aspirations assumed to predict positive states, as posited by SDT. We propose that external contingencies align with extrinsic aspirations and that internal contingencies appear to
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relate to intrinsic aspirations. Approval from others, competition, and appearance seem to be similar to the extrinsic aspirations of being admired by others and having an attractive image (fame and image goals). Concerns with approval from others are also thought to underlie the desire for wealth (Kasser, 2002). Furthermore, maintaining God’s love is relevant to the goal of personal growth, and virtue may be associated with both personal growth and community contributions. Perceiving family support is likely to be associated with the aspiration of having meaningful relationships. Given that domains of self-worth have a self-regulatory function and guide the way individuals direct their effort and time, those whose self-worth is highly dependent on external domains, such as approval from others, may be more likely to pursue the extrinsic aspiration of attaining fame or physical beauty (Kasser, 2002). Similarly, self-worth contingent on internal domains would likely predict the pursuit of intrinsic aspirations. Thus, these domains of contingency may narrow individuals’ focus onto different types of aspirations. Another indication of the connection between the contingencies and the types of aspirations is that they both relate to indicators of mental well-being. As reviewed above, various studies have independently documented the association between internal contingencies or intrinsic aspirations and higher well-being. External contingencies and extrinsic aspirations do not predict positive well-being, and may even be associated with poorer well-being. These findings lend further support to the possibility that the content of the aspirations as described by SDT are associated with domains of contingency. Furthermore, there has already been some discussion of the commonalities between SDT and the concept of CSW (see Crocker & Park, 2004; Ryan & Brown, 2003). Much of this discussion seems to center around the motivational underpinnings of pursuing self-esteem (Crocker & Park, 2004). Crocker and colleagues point out that individuals who seek to improve their self-worth via successes in various domains are likely non-autonomously motivated, because they are seeking an outcome that is extrinsic to the behavior. Such contingencies on one’s self-worth may also invite guilt and internal pressure, which are characteristics of introjected motivation, a form of extrinsic motivation. In general, individuals who engage in behavior and tasks based on controlled motivation (i.e., introjected and external) report lower well-being compared to individuals who are autonomously motivated (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Having controlled (non-autonomous) motivation towards their actions thwarts individuals’ experience of autonomy, a basic psychological need necessary for well-being (Deci & Ryan, 2000). Thus, when individuals are preoccupied with a desire to be successful in the various domains of self-worth, they may be preventing themselves from satisfying psychological experiences that are ultimately responsible for their well-being. Confirming Factor Structures in an Iranian Sample A second goal of this research is to test whether this body of research on the domains of CSW and types of aspirations can be generalized to individuals from diverse populations. Previous research has shown that the factor structure of aspirations is similar across many nations (see Grouzet et al., 2005). In this research, 11 different types of aspirations were examined such as aspirations for hedonism, safety, as well as the extrinsic and intrinsic aspirations that are of focus in the current study. Thus, of particular interest was whether CSW and various domains are relevant to Iranian college students. Individuals from the Middle Eastern region of the world have been historically underrepresented in psychological research in general.
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Also, as a region thought to be more oriented towards collectivist values than individualist values (Ali, Taqi, & Krishnan, 1997; Bochner & Hesketh, 1994), it is unclear whether Iranians place a similar level of importance on seeking self-esteem as do Americans and Europeans. Past research suggests that individuals from collectivist backgrounds are more likely to derive their sense of satisfaction from their group’s achievements and successes rather than those by the individuals themselves (Heine, Lehman, Markus, & Kitayama, 1999; Triandis, 2002). Thus, it is possible that individual self-esteem is less important to one’s well-being among Iranians in contrast to Americans or Europeans. On the other hand, some research on non-Western samples has thus far demonstrated that self-esteem is important to well-being (Sheldon, Elliot, Kim, & Kasser, 2001). Furthermore, the Contingencies of Self-Worth Scale (CSWS; Crocker et al., 2003) has been validated among samples from Lebanon (Kazarian, 2009) and Japan (Uchida, 2008), suggesting that individuals in these nations also reliably and meaningfully vary in their contingent self-worth. The current study attempted to contribute to this small but growing body of literature. Based on this research, we predicted that the factor structures that emerged with data from our Iranian sample would be similar to those previously reported based on Western samples. Associations With Well-Being-Related Variables In addition to verifying the factor structures, we examined the associations between the domains of CSW and types of aspirations and indicators of positive psychological states, including selfcompassion, self-esteem, narcissism, and integrative self-knowledge. This examination was to ensure that the constructs of CSW and aspirations related to well-being-related measures in a predictable pattern. Self-compassion refers to people’s tendency to react toward themselves with kindness and tenderness rather than judgment and self-criticism, especially in the face of failures, personal flaws and imperfections (Neff, 2003a, 2003b). Self-compassion has been proposed as an alternative to the potential costly pursuit of self-esteem and has been shown to be associated with various indicators of well-being (Neff, 2003a, 2003b). Self-esteem, individuals’ overall evaluation of themselves, has been examined as a marker of positive well-being in a great deal of research (Crocker & Wolfe, 2001; Trzesniewski et al., 2010). Integrative self-knowledge refers to individuals’ awareness of themselves as a result of a continuing effort to understand and integrate their past and current experiences to their sense of self (Ghorbani, Watson, & Hargis, 2008). Individuals who are high in integrative self-knowledge also report higher wellbeing and satisfaction of basic psychological needs, as well as lower anxiety and depressive symptoms (Ghorbani et al., 2008).In contrast to self-esteem, narcissism, an overly positive evaluation of oneself, does not appear to predict experiencing heightened well-being when controlling for self-esteem (Zuckerman & O’Loughlin, 2009). Furthermore, individuals who are narcissistic are less empathetic to the plight of others (Campbell, Rudich, & Sedikides, 2002) and experience greater relationship problems (Campbell & Foster, 2002). Altogether, self-compassion, self-esteem, integrative self-knowledge, and narcissism are considered to be indicators of mental well-being. Their associations with aspirations and CSW were examined to assess the validity of these constructs among Iranian university students. In sum, we posed two main predictions. First, we predicted that importance placed on internal contingencies of self-worth would be positively associated with a focus on intrinsic aspirations, comprising of importance placed on aspirations, perceived likelihood of achieving the aspiration, and current level of attainment of aspirations. Holding external contingencies, on the other hand,
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would be positively associated with a focus on extrinsic aspirations. Second, we predicted that the constructs of contingencies of self-worth and aspirations would be similarly understood among Iranian university students. Specifically, we predicted that the factor structures of these constructs based on ratings by our Iranian sample would be similar to those previously reported by Kasser and Ryan (1996) and Crocker and colleagues (2003) on American samples. The identification of the Iranian factor structure was followed by an examination of factor correlations with the various psychological variables. We expected that intrinsic aspirations and internal contingencies, rather than extrinsic aspirations and external contingencies, would be positively associated with markers of well-being.
METHOD Participants Students at the Langaroud Payame Nour University in Iran served as research participants. The sample included a total of 502 participants (334 women, 164 men, and 4 unreported). Average age in this sample was 21 years (SD = 3.35). The participants were approached in classrooms of 10-20 students and given information about the study, including the types of questions asked in the survey packet. All classrooms were visited at the university. Participation in this study was completely voluntary without compensation, anonymous, and in compliance with institutional ethical guidelines at the university. The participants represent about half of the students at the university as well as a wide variety of disciplines. Procedure and Materials The scales used in this study appeared in a questionnaire booklet that was completed in small groups in classroom settings. All scales were translated from English into Persian. The Aspiration Index (AI) and the CSWS were translated by two Persian-English speaking individuals who were familiar with psychology. In these procedures, one individual translated AI and CSWS items from English into Persian, and then another translated them back into English. Several other experts in the psychology also reviewed the Persian translation of the two scales to ensure that the translations were correct. The back translations of AI and CSWS scales were also evaluated by the researchers who published the original scales (i.e., Drs. Kasser and Crocker). Differences between original and back-translated statements were rare, carefully analyzed, and easily resolved when necessary through revisions in the Persian translation. The other scales used in the study were translated using a similar approach or were translated from English into Persian by bilingual speakers. The booklet contained the following scales, in addition to background questions regarding the age and gender of the participants. Integrative Self-Knowledge Scale (ISK; Ghorbani et al., 2008). The ISK is composed of 12 items (α = .74, M = 3.28, SD = .59) which were rated on a scale ranging from 1 (largely untrue) to 5 (largely true). An example item states, “If I need to, I can reflect about myself and clearly understand the feelings and attitudes behind my past behaviors.” Scores were computed by averaging across the 12 ratings.
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TABLE 1 Descriptive Statistics for the Subscales of Aspirations Index and Contingencies of Self-Worth Scale
Extrinsic aspirations Importance Likelihood Attainment Intrinsic aspirations Importance Likelihood Attainment CSWS-E Appearance Competition Academics Approval CSWS-I Virtue Family support God’s love
Cronbach’s α
M
SD
.84 .84 .84
4.77 4.52 3.55
1.09 .86 .86
.86 .87 .88 .76 .58 .65 .60 .66 .79 .71 .59 .75
6.38 5.65 4.65 4.61 3.91 5.52 5.15 3.84 5.78 5.48 5.65 6.15
.60 .69 .86 .62 .93 .75 .80 1.18 .61 .92 .78 .79
Note. CSWS-E = The external subscale of the Contingencies of Self-Worth Scale, CSWS-I = The internal subscale of the Contingencies of Self-Worth Scale.
Aspirations Index (Kasser & Ryan, 1996). The AI measures seven aspirations: wealth, fame, image, personal growth, meaningful relationships, community contribution, and physical health. Each aspiration is represented by five specifically worded life goals (examples include “to achieve the ‘look’ I’ve been after” and “to keep up with fashions in hair and clothing” for the image aspiration). For each life goal, participants were asked to rate three aspects, including importance (“How important is this [goal] to you?”), the likelihood of achieving the aspiration (“How likely is it that this [goal] will happen in your future?”), and the extent to which it has been attained already (“How much have you already attained this goal?”), on a scale ranging from 1 (not at all) to 7 (very). Thus, there were a total of 105 items (7 aspirations × 5 life goals × 3 aspects per goal). Together, these three aspects comprise an individual’s orientation towards each type of aspiration (Kasser & Ryan, 1996). The importance, likelihood, and attainment ratings were calculated separately for each group of extrinsic (i.e., wealth, fame, and image) and intrinsic aspirations (i.e., personal growth, meaningful relationships, and community contributions).1 See Table 1 for descriptive statistics regarding this measure. Contingencies of Self-Worth Scale (Crocker et al., 2003). The seven domains of contingency were assessed by five items each in the CSWS, for a total of 35 items. The items were rated on a scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). Based on the results of the confirmatory factor analysis (see below), the domains generally corresponded to the original scale. See Table 1 for descriptive statistics regarding the domains. For our primary analyses, we calculated mean scores by averaging across the means for the external contingencies (i.e., appearance, competition, academic competence, and others’ approval; α = .76, M = 4.61, SD =
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.62) and for the internal contingencies (i.e., virtue, family support, and God’s love; α = .79, M = 5.78, SD = .61) following the method used in Collins and Stukas (2008).
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Self-Compassion Scale-Short Form (SCS-SF; Raes, Pommier, Neff, & Van Gucht, 2011). The SCS-SF assesses individuals’ tendency to be self-compassionate, and the items ask about individuals’ tendency to be kind to oneself, to be mindful, and to see failures as affecting everyone. Participants rate 12 items reflecting self-compassion (α = .68, M = 3.11, SD = .57) on a 1 (almost never) to 5 (almost always) scale. The ratings were averaged across the items to calculate participants’ scores. Margolis-Thomas Measure of Narcissism (MTNS; Margolis & Thomas, 1980). We used the MTNS in our study, which includes 24 similar forced-choice items (α = .61, M = 1.29, SD = .13). In each item, the respondent must choose between two phrases, of which one is non-narcissistic (for example, “It does not matter that I have a decent appearance at all times”; coded as 1), and the other narcissistic (for example, “I care about having a decent appearance at all times”; coded as 2). With reverse scoring of some of the items, higher mean scores indicate higher narcissism. While MTNS is a less commonly used measure of narcissism, we thought it would be more suitable for our purposes, as it focuses exclusively on the negative aspects of narcissism. The Narcissistic Personality Inventory (Raskin & Hall, 1979), for instance, includes items that measure some potentially adaptive aspects of narcissism, such as self-admiration and perception of oneself as a leader. Furthermore, the MTNS had already been translated into Persian and found to have good psychometric properties in an Iranian sample (Ghorbani, Watson, Hamzavy, & Weathington, 2010). Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSE; Rosenberg, 1965). We included this commonly used measure of self-esteem. Ten items assessed participants’ level of self-esteem (α = .79, M = 3.59, SD = .62) based on a rating scale that ranged from 1 (largely untrue) to 5 (largely true). The ratings were averaged across the items to calculate participants’ scores.
RESULTS Data Analytic Strategy Before testing the first hypothesis regarding the associations between the aspiration types and contingency domains, we conducted a set of factor analyses to validate the AI and CSWS in our Iranian sample. After confirming the factor structures of each measure, we computed scores representing participants’ rated importance of intrinsic and extrinsic aspirations, likelihood of achieving these aspirations in the future, and the extent to which these aspirations have already been attained. We also computed scores representing the internal and external subscales of CSWS. Using these computed scores, we examined the associations among aspirations, domain contingencies, and indicators of mental well-being.
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Examining the Factor Structures of AI and CSWS In order to investigate the factor structures of AI and CSWS in the Iranian sample, we first conducted a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) for each scale using maximum likelihood with robust standard estimates. Based on the recommendations of Hu and Bentler (1999), McDonald and Ho (2002), and Hooper, Coughlan, and Mullen (2008), evaluations of model fit with our participants’ data focused on the Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR), the Comparative Fit Index (CFI), and the Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA). According to the guidelines stated by these researchers, the proposed factor model displays adequate fit if the SRMR is less than .08, CFI is .90 or greater, and RMSEA is less than .06. Based on these indices, results showed that the importance of intrinsic and extrinsic aspirations (χ 2 (55) = 1322.78, p < .001, CFI = .94, RMSEA = .05, SRMR = .06), likelihood of intrinsic and extrinsic aspirations (χ 2 (55) = 1207.90, p < .001, CFI = .95, RMSEA = .05, SRMR = .06), and attainment of intrinsic and extrinsic aspirations (χ 2 (55) = 1257.86, p < .001, CFI = .95, RMSEA = .05, SRMR= .06) did fit with the factor model reported by Kasser and Ryan (1996). The CSWS also appeared to fit the seven-factor model reported by Crocker and colleagues (2003), as the fit indices were close to the recommended standards (χ 2 (53) = 1723, p < .001, CFI = .87, RMSEA = .07, SRMR = .08).2 These results suggest that the factor structure of aspirations and the domains of contingencies of self-worth are similar in Iranians as in other previously examined samples. Associations Among AI and CSWS Domains To test the first hypothesis that intrinsic aspirations related positively with internal domains of self-worth and that extrinsic aspirations related positively with external domains of self-worth, we conducted Pearson correlation analyses (see Table 2). Results showed that the subscale of external contingencies of self-worth positively correlated with the importance (r = .42, p < .01), likelihood (r = .22, p < .01), and the attainment (r = .15, p < .01) of extrinsic aspirations. This pattern was not evident with intrinsic aspirations, although external contingencies positively correlated with importance of intrinsic aspirations (r = .13, p < .05). As predicted, internal contingencies of self-worth positively correlated with the importance (r = .45, p < .01), likelihood (r = .30, p < .01), and the attainment (r = .16, p < .01) of intrinsic aspirations, but it did not correlate with any of the aspects of extrinsic aspirations. As a whole, these results support the notion that the types of aspirations and domains of contingency may share a link. Examining Associations With Markers of Mental Well-Being We also examined whether intrinsic and extrinsic aspirations and the domains of contingency were correlated in an expected fashion with variables that have previously been associated with well-being. This allowed us to further test the validity of the AI and the CSWS in our sample, as well as replicate previous findings. Indeed, our correlational analyses (see Table 3) show that participants who valued intrinsic aspirations reported higher self-compassion (r = .13, p < .01), integrative self-knowledge (r = .19, p < .01), and self-esteem (r = .16, p < .01), as well as lower narcissism (r = –.23, p < .01). Participants’ ratings of likelihood and attainment of intrinsic aspirations showed a similar
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TABLE 2 Correlations Among Aspirations and Subscales of Contingent Self-Worth 1
2
3
4
5
6
Extrinsic aspirations 1. Importance 2. Likelihood 3. Attainment
1 .68∗∗ .49∗∗
1 .73∗∗
1
Intrinsic aspirations 4. Importance 5. Likelihood 6. Attainment
.29∗∗ .16∗∗ .10∗
.20∗∗ .48∗∗ .33∗∗
.01 .33∗∗ .57∗∗
1 .56∗∗ .26∗∗
1 .67∗∗
1
CSWS subscales 7. External 8. Internal
.42∗∗ .06
.22∗∗ .01
.15∗∗ −.01
.13∗ .45∗∗
−.02 .30∗∗
.00 .16∗∗
7
8
1 .34∗∗
1
Note. ∗ p < .05; ∗∗ p < .01.
pattern. In contrast, participants who value extrinsic aspirations reported lower self-compassion (r = −.11, p < .05) and integrative self-knowledge (r = –.19, p < .01), as well as higher narcissism (r = .29, p < .01). Valuing extrinsic aspirations did not significantly predict self-esteem, however. Although not predicted, likelihood of extrinsic aspirations positively correlated with self-compassion (r = .11, p < .05) and self-esteem (r = .19, p < .01), and attainment of extrinsic aspirations positively correlated with self-compassion (r = .16, p < .05), narcissism (r = .12, p < .05) and self-esteem (r = .18, p < .05). Past research has shown similar findings among likelihood and attainment of extrinsic aspirations with extraversion and subjective well-being (Romero, G´omez-Fraguela, & Villar, 2012). A possible reason for this pattern is explained in the discussion section.
TABLE 3 Correlations Between Aspirations/Domains of Contingent Self-Worth and Well-Being Outcomes
Extrinsic aspirations Importance Likelihood Attainment Intrinsic aspirations Importance Likelihood Attainment Subscales of contingency External Internal Note. ∗ p < .05; ∗∗ p < .01.
Self-compassion
Integrative self-knowledge
−.11∗ .11∗ .16∗
−.19∗∗ .04 .01
.29∗∗ .09 .12∗
−.06 .19∗∗ .18∗∗
.19∗∗ .25∗∗ .25∗∗
−.23∗∗ −.29∗∗ −.20∗∗
.15∗∗ .32∗∗ .32∗∗
.13∗∗ .27∗∗ .31∗∗ −.16∗∗ .02
−.12∗ .04
Narcissism
.29∗∗ −.19∗∗
Self-esteem
−.08 .04
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Our results also show that the external subscale of domains of contingency (competition, academic competence, approval from others, and appearance) negatively correlated with selfcompassion (r = –.16, p < .01) and integrative self-knowledge (r = –.12, p < .05) and positively correlated with narcissism (r = .29, p < .01), confirming previous research. In contrast, the internal subscale domains of contingency (virtue, family support, God’s love) do not appear to be harmful to well-being, as expected, although the internal subscales did not significantly predict self-compassion or integrative self-knowledge. The internal subscale negatively associated with narcissism (r = –.19, p < .01), however. Taken together, these correlations replicate previous findings that external contingencies may be more harmful to well-being than internal contingencies.
DISCUSSION The current research investigated two main questions. First, are the domains of contingent self-worth meaningfully related to the categories of aspirations proposed by self-determination theory? Second, are the instruments used to assess contingencies of self-worth and aspirations valid in a sample of Iranian university students? Our findings reveal some important information addressing these questions. Regarding the relationship between aspirations and domains of contingent self-worth, we found that, on the whole, an orientation towards intrinsic aspirations positively correlated with internal domains of contingent self-worth. Furthermore, an orientation towards extrinsic aspirations positively correlated with external domains. There are at least two possible reasons for these associations. One reason is that both aspirations and contingent self-worth are a part of a constellation of variables related to well-being, as suggested by previous work on these constructs. Thus, their associations may be reflecting shared variability of well-being without being inherently related. However, it is also possible that both aspirations and contingent self-worth are inherently intertwined, as we proposed earlier. When considering the content of the aspirations and the domains of contingency, we see some overlap between external domains and extrinsic aspirations and between internal domains and intrinsic aspirations. For instance, the extrinsic aspiration regarding popularity and fame seems reflected in the external domain of approval from others. Thus, when individuals perceive their success in external domains to be important to their self-worth, they may be more likely to pursue extrinsic aspirations. Pursuing extrinsic aspirations (versus intrinsic aspirations) may then lead to no measurable effect on one’s well-being, if not lowering well-being itself (Duriez, 2011; Henderson-King & Mitchell, 2011; Kasser, 2002; Kasser & Ryan, 1996; Van Hiel et al., 2010). Our findings thus extend previous research that has merged contingent self-worth and self-determination theory by demonstrating that the contingent self-worth may fuel the way individuals direct their attention and effort towards major personal aspirations. To our knowledge, while researchers have theorized that contingent self-worth invites controlled motivation, the similarities between the domains and the aspirations have not been fully explored. We also examined whether the AI and the CSWS are meaningful constructs among Iranian university students. The confirmatory factor analysis of the AI showed that its factor structure in the Iranian sample is similar to that of samples from the U.S. (Kasser & Ryan, 1996), Russia
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(Ryan et al., 1999), Germany (Schmuck, Kasser, & Ryan, 2000), South Korea (Kim, Kasser, & Lee, 2003) and Spain (Romero et al., 2012). Iranians, along with individuals from other nations, do distinguish between extrinsic and intrinsic aspirations, suggesting that the values contained in these aspirations may be universally recognized. Furthermore, the correlation analyses suggested that focusing on intrinsic aspirations (i.e., personal growth, meaningful relationships, and community contributions) positively predicted variables related to well-being, such as self-compassion, integrative self-knowledge, and selfesteem, and negatively predicted narcissism. In contrast, we saw an opposite pattern of correlations regarding importance placed on extrinsic aspirations (i.e., wealth, image, and fame). These results confirm previous findings regarding the associations between extrinsic and intrinsic aspirations and well-being (Kasser & Ryan, 1993, 1996; Sheldon et al., 2010; Martos & Kopp, 2011). We also saw that although importance of extrinsic aspirations was generally negatively associated with the well-being-related variables, this was not true of participants’ ratings of likelihood and attainment of extrinsic aspirations. The extent to which individuals were self-compassionate or had high self-esteem was associated with their perception that they were likely to achieve their extrinsic aspirations and to see themselves as already attaining these aspirations. One reason why this may be the case is that individuals who are high in self-esteem and self-compassion may take on a positive attitude towards their ability to succeed in aspirations in general, regardless of whether the aspirations are intrinsic or extrinsic. Past research shows that individuals who have positive expectations are more motivated to succeed in their goals and perceive themselves to be more capable of succeeding (Peterson, 2000; Taylor et al., 2000) and more likely to expend effort towards desired outcomes (Bandura, 1997; Maddux, Sherer, & Rogers, 1982). In addition to this explanation, an alternative explanation involving a different variable—control over the attainment of extrinsic goals—is also viable. Individuals who do not have control over circumstances of their lives that relate to achieving extrinsic goals and hence report low attainment of extrinsic goals may simultaneously be lower in well-being. Indeed, previous research suggests that individuals’ sense of control over their lives play a role in their well-being (Lachman & Weaver, 1998; Ryff, 1989). In any case, these results thus imply that the perceived importance of aspirations may be more sensitive predictors of well-being than the perceived likelihood or attainment of aspirations. The factor structure of the CSWS was also replicated in our sample, suggesting a sevenfactor structure previously reported (Crocker et al., 2003). Furthermore, we saw a distinction between the external and internal domains in the way they associated with variables related to well-being. Having one’s self-worth hinge upon external domains appeared to be more reliably predictive of lower well-being, confirming past research (Crocker et al., 2003; Crocker & Wolfe, 2001; Luhtanen & Crocker, 2003; Sargent et al., 2006). Again, this suggests that not all domains are equal in terms of their implications on well-being. However, given the lack of associations between the internal subscale and self-compassion, integrative self-knowledge, and self-esteem suggests that even contingent self-esteem on internal domains is not necessarily beneficial to well-being. Still, domains that depend more on external evaluations of success or failure are more likely to be harmful to well-being.
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Limitations and Future Directions Several limitations of this study may be addressed in future research. First, the current study relied on a convenience sample of university students. Thus, it is important to acknowledge the possibility that the results of this study do not necessarily represent Iranians in general. While university student samples are common in psychological research, it is nevertheless important to see if the results replicate with individuals from other demographic backgrounds, such as individuals from a wider age range and from other geographical locations. Replication of these results is especially important to better understand the factor structure of the domains of contingent self-worth among Iranians. A second important limitation is that the correlational nature of the study design prevents us from making any assumptions about causal relationships among the variables. For instance, it is impossible to know whether being self-compassionate and having high integrative selfknowledge leads individuals to feel that intrinsic aspirations are important based on this study or that viewing intrinsic aspirations as important (and possibly pursuing them) lead individuals to be more self-compassionate and more knowledgeable about themselves. Although causality cannot be inferred, past research has documented positive mental health outcomes related to the pursuit of intrinsic (relative to extrinsic) aspirations (Kasser & Ryan, 1993; 1996; Sheldon, Ryan, Deci, & Kasser, 2004), which suggest that the importance placed on intrinsic aspirations could affect individuals’ self-compassion and self-knowledge.
NOTES 1. Although physical health was included in this index, research shows that it is not clearly extrinsic or intrinsic (Kasser & Ryan, 1996). Thus, physical health was omitted from our analyses and discussion. 2. Additionally, we conducted an exploratory factor analysis (EFA) to examine an alternative structure of the CSWS. The resulting factor structure was less comprehensible, with some items loading onto different factors and the exclusion of an entire factor. The associations between the aspirations and the contingencies were very similar between the two factor structures; thus, for a more parsimonious presentation, we describe the results using the original scale.
AUTHOR NOTES Milad SabzehAra is affiliated with the University of Tehran. Yuna Lee Ferguson is affiliated with the Department of Psychology, Pennsylvania State University Shenango. Mehdi Reza Sarafraz is affiliated with the University of Tehran. Mostafa Mohammadi is affiliated with the University of Geneva.
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Received April 17, 2013 Accepted September 5, 2013
