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An Investigation Into Motorcycle Crashes in Work Zones a
a
Alexander R. Maistros , Brandon A. Stakleff & William H. Schneider IV
a
a
Department of Civil Engineering, The University of Akron, Auburn Science and Engineering Center, Akron, Ohio Published online: 15 Jan 2015.
Click for updates To cite this article: Alexander R. Maistros, Brandon A. Stakleff & William H. Schneider IV (2015) An Investigation Into Motorcycle Crashes in Work Zones, Traffic Injury Prevention, 16:4, 418-423, DOI: 10.1080/15389588.2014.952723 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15389588.2014.952723
PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the “Content”) contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinions and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors, and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content should not be relied upon and should be independently verified with primary sources of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising out of the use of the Content. This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http:// www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions
Traffic Injury Prevention (2015) 16, 418–423 C Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Copyright ISSN: 1538-9588 print / 1538-957X online DOI: 10.1080/15389588.2014.952723
An Investigation Into Motorcycle Crashes in Work Zones ALEXANDER R. MAISTROS, BRANDON A. STAKLEFF, and WILLIAM H. SCHNEIDER IV Department of Civil Engineering, The University of Akron, Auburn Science and Engineering Center, Akron, Ohio
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Received 29 August 2013, Accepted 4 August 2014
Objective: There were 454 motorcycle crashes in work zones within the state of Ohio between January 2006 and July 2012. Pavement degradation derived from work zones tend to have a hazardous effect on motorcycles and their safe passage. The objective of this study is to research the work zones where motorcycle crashes have taken place in order to determine any contributing factors. Methods: This study incorporates the collection of motorcycle crash data, including construction documents associated with the work zones in which the crashes occurred. Crash documents from the Ohio Department of Public safety and the Ohio Department of Transportation are used to identify the initial factors to be studied. Results: Construction documents associated with 183 of the crashes are able to be retrieved. From these documents, the frequency of associated crashes and rates of fatalities per work type are able to be determined. Conclusions: It is found that work types that take place on lower functional class roadways, such as sewer repair, are found to have higher fatality rates. In contrast, those work zones on higher functional class roadways often incorporate speed calming measures and have a clear division between the traveled way and the actual construction work. Keywords: motorcycles, work zones, injury severity
Introduction In the United States, the ratio of motorcycle fatalities to all motor vehicle fatalities is disproportional to the registration rates of these vehicles, making motorcycle crashes more than a pressing issue. In 2006, there were 4,837 fatal crashes involving motorcycles in the United States, and the total number of motor vehicles involved in fatal crashes was 38,648 (NHTSA 2012). The number of fatal motorcycle crashes per registered vehicle for 2006 is about 5.4 times the rate of all fatal crashes to all registered vehicles (Federal Highway Administration [FHWA] 2006). Additionally, motorcycles in the United States are more than 21 times more likely, per vehicle miles traveled (VMT), to be involved in a fatal crash than passenger cars based on Fatality Analysis Reporting System data (NHTSA 2012). This rise in the rate of motorcycle crashes has become an increasing concern to a number of organizations. Authorities in Ohio, specifically, are interested in decreasing the number of motorcycle crashes in the state, because Ohio has the fifth largest number of registered motorcycles in the United States (FHWA 2011; Ohio Department of Transportation [ODOT] 2013b). From 2006 through 2010, the number of motorcycles involved in fatal crashes in Ohio has increased from 166 to 175 per year, and the total number of motor
Associate Editor Clay Gabler oversaw the review of this article. Address correspondence to William H. Schneider IV, Department of Civil Engineering, The University of Akron, Auburn Science and Engineering Center, Room 210, Akron, OH 44325–3905. E-mail: [email protected]
vehicles involved in fatal crashes in the state has declined from 1,526 to 1,296 over the same period (NHTSA 2012). It is of note that over the same period the number of motorcycles registered in the state of Ohio increased by 15% and the number of total vehicles registered in Ohio decreased by roughly 9% (FHWA 2007, 2011). As a result of seasonal weather, the majority of Ohio’s motorcycle activity occurs during the short riding season, which is typically observed from roughly May through September. These seasonal conditions also happen to be ideal for roadway repairs, and thus the riding season in Ohio coincides with the road construction season. The concurrence of the riding season and repair work drastically increases the exposure of motorcyclists to work zones. Roadway work alters the roadway surface and changes the path of travel. Safety in roadway work zones is recognized as a high priority by federal and state transportation agencies (FHWA 1995) and, as such, various states have begun using different strategies to complete road construction work in a safe and cost-effective manner. Because work zones are nonpermanent designs, both new and regular users of the roadway may be unaware of the obstacles ahead of them. This has led to studies to determine how the setup of the work zones will affect their safety. A variety of solutions have been identified and are in use to increase the safety of motorcyclists in work zones. These solutions span several types of implementations: signs, websites, reporting hotlines, surface treatments, design specifications, and design methods (Cottrell 2006; FHWA 2012; Governors Highway Safety Association 2008; ODOT 2010, 2012; Potts et al. 2008; Roadway Safety Consortium 2010; Texas
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Motorcycle Crashes in Work Zones Department of Transportation 2008). Though their effectiveness has not been analyzed, the various solutions have been adopted in varying capacities for use in construction zones. The price and ease of application for these solutions (which can range widely) are well known, but their effectiveness in reducing the number of crashes has not been investigated. Many of the solutions have been studied in order to gauge their ability to be adequately understood by motorists. For example, the motorcycle plaque (W8–15P) in the Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD) was analyzed for its comprehensibility and was determined to be the best solution from a group of similar alternative signs (Hawkins et al. 2009). The “Iowa Weave”—a setup where there is a lane closure with a left-hand merge and shift—was found to reduce the crash rate, although it did not significantly affect the crash severity (See 2008). Other studies analyzed the effects of the time of day to determine whether work zones active during the day or at night were safer. It was found that the work operations occurring at night were coincident with lower traffic volumes and contained a much lower number of crashes (Ullman et al. 2008). In order to design and implement the most practical and efficient solutions, a deeper knowledge of how work zones affect motorcycles and motorcycle crashes is needed. Though crash data provide an outline of the contributing crash factors and other background information pertaining to the crash, it fails to address the construction activity that is taking place at the time of the crash. As such, an in-depth investigation of the construction records is necessary. In this research study, 454 motorcycle crashes in work zones in the state of Ohio are scrutinized. The crash factor data are then paired with the construction plans, construction logs, and crash report information with the objective of capturing the most complete record possible for each of the crash events.
Methods The initial steps in the crash investigation focus on isolating the motorcycle and work zone related crashes in Ohio. Statelevel crash data were chosen due to the data on the number and types of crashes available. Though national data sets such as the Fatality Analysis Reporting System data provided by NHTSA represent a wide geographic sample, the lack of specific categories for crash severity limits the number of crashes that can be included for analysis. As such, the state-level data provide an adequate number of crashes within a geographic area that is reasonable to investigate using construction documents. All crash data were initially obtained from the state database at the Ohio Department of Public Safety (ODPS). All crashes are filtered down to motorcycle crashes and then limited to motorcycle crashes that are work zone–related, which is reported in the crash reports. The determination of work zone–related crashes allowed for the team to go through the construction documents to find more details and determine the paired data. The process for data collection may be seen in Fig. A1 (see online supplement).
419 In order to better understand the setup of the work zone, the construction plans identifying the setup are obtained from the ODOT. These construction plans contain maintenance of traffic plans and cross sections, type of project that the work is covering, length (distance) of the work, sequence of the work to occur, directions for installing traffic control devices, traffic signal timing, use of barriers and shoulder treatments, notices for lane closures, and lane closure restrictions. The phases of construction correlate to the setups of pavement markings, paths of travel, and locations of any barriers that are in use at the same segment of the roadway during different times in the construction process. The plans show various aspects of the roadway such as the lane lines, placement of portable concrete barriers (PCBs), impact attenuators, drums, and the pavement being constructed. The plans and cross sections are the most descriptive portions of the construction plans. This portion of the plans depicts the setup of the work zone and identifies potential hazards near the path of travel. Through the analysis of the construction plans and cross sections, several variables are derived to enable each work zone to be compared to other zones. These variables, which may be seen in Fig. A1, include the geometry of the roadway, work zone size, type of project, type of barrier(s) present, whether work was in progress next to the roadway, and whether work was in progress at the location of the crash. A portion of the construction plans obtained for this study did not contain all of the information the research team was seeking. As a result of incomplete project plans, some variables were left with unknown values. The projects associated with these plans may have encompassed more routine tasks, which do not require an in-depth description of the roadway. In addition, some variables (such as the type of barrier used) may change based on how the work is completed. For example, in a resurfacing project, the type of barrier used depends on the amount of pavement that is removed in the adjoining lane; more drastic changes in elevation will require more robust barriers. For this research, for those plans that could not yield all of the data, every attempt was made to search through additional documentation, but if the records were not available, the crash associated with the work zone was not included in the analysis of the data. In order to determine where and what type of work is occurring at the location of each crash, the research team obtained construction diaries for specific projects, which are notes from the construction site that state which contractors are on site and what type of work they performed. A breakdown of the information obtained from the daily construction diaries may be seen in Fig. A1. In order to obtain a clear understanding of what type of work is occurring for a given work site around the time of the crash, the research team looked at construction diaries for the 2 months preceding the month of the crash. The process of determining the phase of the work involves comparing the work being completed on the construction diaries to the various layouts on the different phases in the construction plans. This process can be difficult, because the construction diaries typically do not clearly identify the phases when a change in the maintenance of traffic setup occurs. The identification of the phase is essential in gaining the knowledge of a specific setup of the work zone. Because the construction
420 diaries lacked specific information regarding the location, the diaries are sometimes compared to the different phases in the weeks or months prior to the date of the crash in order to determine a definitive phase for the project. Once the crash and construction information is compiled, the type of work may be compared to the crashes occurring within the work zones. In order to compare project types, fatality rates are determined by dividing the number of crashes associated with a particular type of work.
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Data Of the 454 motorcycle crashes in Ohio that occurred in work zones from 2006 to 2011, 98% (443) include latitude and longitude, allowing for them to be geographically located. The collection of data from the ODOT and ODPS data sets provided in-depth information on the occurrence of each crash. Descriptive statistics of the collected data identify factors related to each crash. These factors summarize the conditions and any related events that occurred throughout all of the crashes. The descriptive statistics are broken down into three different groups: general crash related, rider related, and work zone related. The general crash-related categories identify aspects of the crash that are related to the temporal and crash events, roadway, and conditions present at the time of the crash, and these may be seen in Table 1. The functional classifications with the highest number of crashes were principal and minor arterials. The projects on these higher functional class roadways are typically more complicated and lengthy, leaving the work zone more exposed. The work zone crashes are categorized into 4 different time categories: morning, afternoon, evening, and night. The majority of the crashes occurred during the afternoon and evening time periods; each of these time categories accounted for about 35% (155) of the crashes. These time splits support the idea that riding in Ohio is more of a hobby than a commuting option. The motorcycle crashes in work zones occurred throughout all types of roadway functional classes. Approximately 20% of the total crashes (n = 454) occurred on principal arterial interstates in urban locations. The remaining types of roadways accounted for a maximum of 5% of the crashes for each category. The vast majority (96%) of the crashes occurring in the work zones are not related to speeding. This is to be expected, because most construction zones employ speed calming measures. The majority of the crashes (73%) occur when the motorcyclist is moving essentially straight ahead rather than when the motorcyclist is turning, backing, changing lanes, or performing other movements. Only 11% of the crashes occur when the motorcyclist is slowing or stopping in traffic, and only 5% occur when the motorcyclist is changing lanes. A motorcyclist with a failure to control is the most common contributing circumstance, at 22% of all of the crashes. The next significant type of crash circumstance is following too closely, which accounted for about 17% of all crashes. The remaining crash circumstances, such as failure to yield, left of center, etc., accounted for 6% or less of the total number of crashes.
Maistros et al. Table 1. General crash descriptive statistics Time of day Morning Afternoon Evening Late night Functional class Principal arterial—interstate (rural) Principal arterial—other (rural) Minor arterial (rural) Major collector (rural) Minor collector (rural) Local (rural) Principal arterial—interstate (urban) Principal arterial—other freeway/expressway (urban) Principal arterial—other (urban) Minor arterial (urban) Collector (urban) Local (urban) Unknown
Count 95 155 158 46 21 13 11 11 3 3 90 20 54 54 11 5 158
Speed relation Speeding Not speeding
18 436
Action Movements essentially straight ahead Backing Changing lanes Overtaking/passing Turning right Turning left Entering traffic lane Leaving traffic lane Slowing or stopped in traffic Other Unknown
331 2 24 7 6 11 9 3 49 4 8
Crash circumstance None Followed too closely Failure to control Unknown
144 76 102 26 Injury severities
Property damage only Injury Fatality Unknown
94 317 12 21
Additionally, though the 12 fatal crashes accounted for less than 3% of the crashes, crashes resulting in injuries accounted for almost 70% of all crashes. The rider-related categories, which pertain to the characteristics of the persons involved in the crash, may be seen in Table 2. This section of the descriptive statistics identifies the relation of the work zone crashes to the gender of the motorcyclist, age of the motorcyclist, presence of a passenger, and the motorcyclist’s use of alcohol. The majority of the crashes (91%) involved a motorcyclist who was a male. Four percent of crashes were related to female motorcyclists. In the remaining 5% of crashes, the gender of the motorcyclist was unknown. In general, these trends follow motorcycle registration trends in Ohio. The age range of the motorcyclists is fairly spread out through several age ranges. The 40- to 49-year-old age range contained the most crashes, at 26% of all crashes. The 50- to 59-year-old age range and riders 29 years old and younger were next, with each age range involved in 20% of the crashes.
Motorcycle Crashes in Work Zones
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Table 2. Rider-related crash statistics Gender Female Male Unknown
Table 3. Work zone crash statistics Count 19 414 21
Age range 29 and younger 30–39 40–49 50–59 60–69 70 and over Unknown
90 77 119 92 44 10 22 Motorcycle occupants
Single rider Rider with passenger
417 37
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Alcohol use Alcohol related Non-alcohol related Unknown
39 377 38
These age patterns are similar to those seen for all motorcycle crashes, indicating that there is no age-related issue that is particular to motorcyclists in work zones. Table 3 identifies the relation of the work zone–related factors. Of the total crashes, complete work zone documentation was obtained for 183 crashes. Document availability was based on the coordinating agency and their policy on retaining the information. Lane closures are the most common type of work zone in which motorcycle crashes occur, representing 37% of all crashes (n = 454). Work on the median or shoulder returned the second highest level of work zone crashes, with 19% of the crashes. Lane shifts and crossovers follow closely behind, with 16% of the crashes. Of the known work zone types, intermittent or moving work resulted in the lowest number of crashes, at 12%. A large difference is noted for crashes occurring in the activity area of a work zone, as opposed to other sections of the work zone. A total of 58% of the crashes occurred in the activity area of the work zone. The transition area returned the next highest number of crashes, at 19% of crashes, and advanced warning areas accounted for 11% of the crashes. Comparatively, the activity zone is expected to have the highest number of crashes because transitions and advanced warning areas do not normally change the road surface of path of travel. Drums are the most commonly used type of barrier, and they are found in 24% of the work zones where crashes occurred. PCBs are used in work zones in 10% of the crashes. The combination of drums and PCBs is the barrier system found in work zones with the least amount of crashes, at 6%. Only one crash is attributed to a work zone with a barricade closing off a roadway, representing less than 1% of all of the crashes. Only 3% of the crashes did not involve a barrier within the proximity of the crash. In the 454 total crashes considered in this study, 44 different types of work were being completed on the day of the crash. Paving occurred during 20% of the crashes, which is the most common of all of the types of work being performed. Excavation occurred during 14% of crashes, and 12% of the crashes occurred in zones where pavement marking was taking
Work zone type Lane closure Lane shift/crossover Work on shoulder or median Intermittent or moving work Other Unknown Work zone location Before the first work zone warning sign Advanced warning area Transition area Activity area Termination area Unknown
Count 166 71 84 55 65 13 30 51 85 264 4 20
Barrier type Barricade Concrete Drums Drums and concrete None Unknown
1 44 108 29 14 258 Type of work
Aggregate placement Bridge construction Excavation Pavement marking Pavement milling Paving Pouring concrete None Unknown
41 41 65 55 45 92 41 22 259
place on the day of the crash. Pavement milling activities were taking place during 10% of the crashes. Aggregate placement and bridge construction occurred during one less crash,which was still at 9% of the total amount of crashes.
Results and Discussion The purpose of collecting these data is to determine how construction work affects motorcyclists. Table A1 (see online supplement) is a comparison of the number and severities of crashes associated with the various types of construction work. From Table A1 it may be seen that 8 general types of work, composed of related subtypes, are formed from the related motorcycle crashes. The work type groups include bridge work, aggregate work, earthwork, median and shoulder work, pavement work, traffic control, utility work, and concrete work. The related subgroups of each general work activity are derived from more specific information taken from the construction documents. During the classification process, it was found that several crashes were related to multiple types of work. As such, the summation of the work subtypes does not necessarily equal the total number of related crashes in a given work type. For instance, when a crash occurs in a bridge construction zone, it is more than reasonable that within a given bridge work zone, sand blasting work may be conducted in addition to the bridge construction activities. These activities may or may not have been happening simultaneously at the same location, but not all construction documents clarify these sorts of details.
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422 Because of the lack of clarity, this crash would be classified as having occurred during both bridge construction and sand blasting. It may be seen from Table A1 that the pavement work type category had the highest frequency of related crashes. However, it may also be seen that this work type had the lowest fatal crash rates. Pavement projects are generally conducted over a long period of time and are generally large-scale operations having more frequent traffic control changes than other project types, which have more permanent construction limits. Though vehicle operators may be aware that they are approaching a construction zone and may reduce their speed accordingly, there may be confusion as to lane changes and direction. The work type with the second highest frequency of related crashes is general earthwork, which has the highest number of fatal crashes per total related crashes at a rate of 5.1. Contrastingly, median and shoulder work has the lowest percentage of related crashes, yet it has the second highest fatality rate at 4.8. A major consideration is the roadside activities that are occurring when vehicles leave the roadway, particularly subtype groups of grading and guardrail construction. During grading work, the exit slope of the roadway may not be suitable for an emergency exit. If there is a drop-off from the roadway surface, it is reasonable to see how a vehicle with 2 wheels will have a much harder time coping with the transition than a 4-wheel vehicle. As for guardrails, it is reasonable to consider that during the placement of a guardrail, a roadside hazard is temporarily left exposed. In certain cases, the exposed partially constructed posts of the guardrails can become a hazard themselves. Additionally, in the state of Ohio, cable median barrier construction has become quite popular in the last several years. Though these cable barriers benefit passenger vehicles, they may present a more of a hazard for motorcyclists who do not have the same protection as the occupants of passenger vehicles in the event of a crash (EuroRAP Motorcycle Safety 2008). Motorcycle crashes involving a roadside object are covered extensively by Daniello and Gabler (2011). Traffic control work may involve either the permanent implementation of traffic control devices, such as pavement markings, or the implementation of temporary traffic control efforts that are specific to the construction zones. Though both types of traffic control work share similar hazards, the expectations for an individual construction zone will change. It is expected that temporary control efforts used in semipermanent construction zones also have speed calming measures associated with them. In contrast, when new pavement markings are installed, the construction zone is frequently a moving one, which may not be anticipated by roadway users and may not have the benefits of speed calming measures. This contrast in expectations may explain why as a total group, the traffic control subtype has a low fatality rating, but the subtype of pavement markings shows a spike in fatal crash ratios. Similar to traffic control, utility work as a group does not appear to be particularly dangerous to motorcycle operators until the subtypes are examined. Both underdrain installation and sewer construction have fatal percentage rates above 4. These types of construction often include excavation taking
Maistros et al. place directly on the roadway or next to the roadway and typically occur on lower functional class roadways. The proximal digging locations may require the construction crew to reduce lane widths and introduce metal plates in the roadway. Though narrower roads may not be as much of an issue for motorcycles as they are for passenger cars (they may cause a full-sized vehicle to improperly leave its lane), the introduction of metal plates is of greater concern for motorcycle operators. The increased hazards of metal plates for motorcyclists as compared to passenger cars are detailed in Cottrell (2006). The major limitation of the work type research is the inability to capture motorcycle VMT within the construction work zones. Though this information would allow the number of crashes to be normalized by the VMT through the work zones, it is not financially or logistically feasible to obtain this information for each work zone. Moreover, the information pertaining to barriers and type of work was not available for 57% of the crashes. The availability of this information and any other unknowns may have a significant effect on the results and the interpretation of which types of construction zones are the most dangerous. Though a study encompassing several geographic regions is not cost or time effective, the scale of this study may influence a geographical bias toward the tendencies in the state of Ohio. From this work, several key findings have been found. Several preliminary links have been established between the severities of motorcycle crashes in work zones and the type of work zone that is being studied. This work has outlined that the type of work and associated traffic control measures may change the expectations and behaviors of motorcycle riders. These changes have a significant impact on the frequency and severity of crashes associated with motorcycles in work zones. In particular, it is seen that semipermanent work zones are effective in reducing speed, but the changes in pavement conditions and path of travel result in more crashes that are less severe. Contrastingly, moving work zones without speed calming measures are seen to have less frequent but more severe crashes. Further works need to be done to compile additional data in order to determine the marginal effects through the use of tools such as regression and econometric modeling. Sudden lane changes may be particularly hazardous to motorcyclists, because they are already difficult to see, whether or not a construction zone is present.
Acknowledgments The authors thank the United States Department of Transportation (USDOT), the National Highway Traffic Safety and Administration (NHTSA), the Ohio Department of Public Safety (ODPS). The research was performed at the University of Akron and the contents reflect the views of the authors, who are responsible for the facts and the accuracy of the data presented herein. The contents do not necessarily reflect the official views or polices of the USDOT, NHTSA, and ODPS.
Motorcycle Crashes in Work Zones Funding The authors thank the Ohio Department of Transportation (ODOT) for financial support.
Supplemental Materials Supplemental data for this article can be accessed on the publisher’s website.
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References Cottrell BH. Visibility of Steel Plates Used in Connection With Highway Repairs. Richmond, VA: Virginia Transportation Research Council; 2006. No. VTRC 07-R16. Daniello A, Gabler HC. Fatality risk in motorcycle collisions with roadside objects in the United States. Accid Anal Prev. 2011;43:1167–1170. EuroRAP Motorcycle Safety. Barriers to Change Designing Safe Roads for Motorcyclists. Hampshire, UK: EuroRAP AISBL; 2008. Federal Highway Administration. Highway Work Zone Safety Program. Washington, DC: Author; 1995. FHWA Docket No. 94–17. Federal Highway Administration. State motor-vehicle registrations—2006 [Data file]. 2006. Available at: http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ policy/ohim/hs06/pdf/mv1.pdf. Federal Highway Administration. Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices for Streets and Highways. Washington, DC: Author; 2012. Federal Highway Administration, Office of Highway Policy Information. Highway Statistics 2010 State Motor-vehicle Registrations—2006. 2007. Available at: http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/policy/ohim/hs06/ htm/mv1.htm#foot2.
423 Federal Highway Administration, Office of Highway Policy Information. Highway Statistics 2010 State Motor-vehicle Registrations—2010. 2011. Available at: http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/policyinformation/ statistics/2010/mv1.cfm. Governors Highway Safety Association. Survey of the States Motorcycle Safety Programs. Washington, DC: Author; 2008. Hawkins H Jr, Katz B, Rigdon H. Evaluating understanding of new symbol signs. Paper presented at: Transportation Research Board 88th Annual Meeting; 2009. NHTSA. Fatality Analysis Reporting System: Fatal Crash Trends. 2012. Available at: http://www-fars.nhtsa.dot.gov/Trends/Trends General.aspx. Accessed August 19, 2012. Ohio Department of Transportation. Construction and Material Specifications. Columbus, OH: Author; 2010. Ohio Department of Transportation. Standard Construction Drawing MT 101.9, Drop-Offs in Work Zones. Columbus, OH: Author; 2012. Ohio Department of Transportation. Ohio Strategic Highway Safety Plan. 2013b. Available at: http://www.dot.state.oh.us/Divisions/Planning/SPPM/MajorPrograms/Safety/Documents/SHSP Overview.pdf. Potts I, Garets S, Smith T, et al. A Guide for Addressing Collisions Involving Motorcycles. Washington, DC: Transportation Research Board; 2008. NCHRP Report 500. Roadway Safety Consortium. Guidelines on Motorcycle and Bicycle Work Zone Safety. Washington, DC: Federal Highway Administration; 2010. Grant Agreement No. DTFH61–06-G-00007. See CF. Crash Analysis of Work Zone Lane Closures With Left-hand Merge and Downstream Lane Shift [Master’s thesis]. Lawrence, KS: University of Kansas; 2008. Texas Department of Transportation. Use of Tapered Longitudinal Joints Such as the Notched Wedge Joint. Austin, TX: Author; 2008. Ullman GL, Finley MD, Bryden JE, Srinivasan R, Council FM. Traffic Safety Evaluation of Nighttime and Daytime Work Zones. Washington, DC: Transportation Research Board; 2008. NCHRP Report 627.
Traffic Injury Prevention Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/gcpi20
An Investigation Into Motorcycle Crashes in Work Zones a
a
Alexander R. Maistros , Brandon A. Stakleff & William H. Schneider IV
a
a
Department of Civil Engineering, The University of Akron, Auburn Science and Engineering Center, Akron, Ohio Published online: 15 Jan 2015.
Click for updates To cite this article: Alexander R. Maistros, Brandon A. Stakleff & William H. Schneider IV (2015) An Investigation Into Motorcycle Crashes in Work Zones, Traffic Injury Prevention, 16:4, 418-423, DOI: 10.1080/15389588.2014.952723 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15389588.2014.952723
PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the “Content”) contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinions and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors, and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content should not be relied upon and should be independently verified with primary sources of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising out of the use of the Content. This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http:// www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions
Traffic Injury Prevention (2015) 16, 418–423 C Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Copyright ISSN: 1538-9588 print / 1538-957X online DOI: 10.1080/15389588.2014.952723
An Investigation Into Motorcycle Crashes in Work Zones ALEXANDER R. MAISTROS, BRANDON A. STAKLEFF, and WILLIAM H. SCHNEIDER IV Department of Civil Engineering, The University of Akron, Auburn Science and Engineering Center, Akron, Ohio
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Received 29 August 2013, Accepted 4 August 2014
Objective: There were 454 motorcycle crashes in work zones within the state of Ohio between January 2006 and July 2012. Pavement degradation derived from work zones tend to have a hazardous effect on motorcycles and their safe passage. The objective of this study is to research the work zones where motorcycle crashes have taken place in order to determine any contributing factors. Methods: This study incorporates the collection of motorcycle crash data, including construction documents associated with the work zones in which the crashes occurred. Crash documents from the Ohio Department of Public safety and the Ohio Department of Transportation are used to identify the initial factors to be studied. Results: Construction documents associated with 183 of the crashes are able to be retrieved. From these documents, the frequency of associated crashes and rates of fatalities per work type are able to be determined. Conclusions: It is found that work types that take place on lower functional class roadways, such as sewer repair, are found to have higher fatality rates. In contrast, those work zones on higher functional class roadways often incorporate speed calming measures and have a clear division between the traveled way and the actual construction work. Keywords: motorcycles, work zones, injury severity
Introduction In the United States, the ratio of motorcycle fatalities to all motor vehicle fatalities is disproportional to the registration rates of these vehicles, making motorcycle crashes more than a pressing issue. In 2006, there were 4,837 fatal crashes involving motorcycles in the United States, and the total number of motor vehicles involved in fatal crashes was 38,648 (NHTSA 2012). The number of fatal motorcycle crashes per registered vehicle for 2006 is about 5.4 times the rate of all fatal crashes to all registered vehicles (Federal Highway Administration [FHWA] 2006). Additionally, motorcycles in the United States are more than 21 times more likely, per vehicle miles traveled (VMT), to be involved in a fatal crash than passenger cars based on Fatality Analysis Reporting System data (NHTSA 2012). This rise in the rate of motorcycle crashes has become an increasing concern to a number of organizations. Authorities in Ohio, specifically, are interested in decreasing the number of motorcycle crashes in the state, because Ohio has the fifth largest number of registered motorcycles in the United States (FHWA 2011; Ohio Department of Transportation [ODOT] 2013b). From 2006 through 2010, the number of motorcycles involved in fatal crashes in Ohio has increased from 166 to 175 per year, and the total number of motor
Associate Editor Clay Gabler oversaw the review of this article. Address correspondence to William H. Schneider IV, Department of Civil Engineering, The University of Akron, Auburn Science and Engineering Center, Room 210, Akron, OH 44325–3905. E-mail: [email protected]
vehicles involved in fatal crashes in the state has declined from 1,526 to 1,296 over the same period (NHTSA 2012). It is of note that over the same period the number of motorcycles registered in the state of Ohio increased by 15% and the number of total vehicles registered in Ohio decreased by roughly 9% (FHWA 2007, 2011). As a result of seasonal weather, the majority of Ohio’s motorcycle activity occurs during the short riding season, which is typically observed from roughly May through September. These seasonal conditions also happen to be ideal for roadway repairs, and thus the riding season in Ohio coincides with the road construction season. The concurrence of the riding season and repair work drastically increases the exposure of motorcyclists to work zones. Roadway work alters the roadway surface and changes the path of travel. Safety in roadway work zones is recognized as a high priority by federal and state transportation agencies (FHWA 1995) and, as such, various states have begun using different strategies to complete road construction work in a safe and cost-effective manner. Because work zones are nonpermanent designs, both new and regular users of the roadway may be unaware of the obstacles ahead of them. This has led to studies to determine how the setup of the work zones will affect their safety. A variety of solutions have been identified and are in use to increase the safety of motorcyclists in work zones. These solutions span several types of implementations: signs, websites, reporting hotlines, surface treatments, design specifications, and design methods (Cottrell 2006; FHWA 2012; Governors Highway Safety Association 2008; ODOT 2010, 2012; Potts et al. 2008; Roadway Safety Consortium 2010; Texas
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Motorcycle Crashes in Work Zones Department of Transportation 2008). Though their effectiveness has not been analyzed, the various solutions have been adopted in varying capacities for use in construction zones. The price and ease of application for these solutions (which can range widely) are well known, but their effectiveness in reducing the number of crashes has not been investigated. Many of the solutions have been studied in order to gauge their ability to be adequately understood by motorists. For example, the motorcycle plaque (W8–15P) in the Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD) was analyzed for its comprehensibility and was determined to be the best solution from a group of similar alternative signs (Hawkins et al. 2009). The “Iowa Weave”—a setup where there is a lane closure with a left-hand merge and shift—was found to reduce the crash rate, although it did not significantly affect the crash severity (See 2008). Other studies analyzed the effects of the time of day to determine whether work zones active during the day or at night were safer. It was found that the work operations occurring at night were coincident with lower traffic volumes and contained a much lower number of crashes (Ullman et al. 2008). In order to design and implement the most practical and efficient solutions, a deeper knowledge of how work zones affect motorcycles and motorcycle crashes is needed. Though crash data provide an outline of the contributing crash factors and other background information pertaining to the crash, it fails to address the construction activity that is taking place at the time of the crash. As such, an in-depth investigation of the construction records is necessary. In this research study, 454 motorcycle crashes in work zones in the state of Ohio are scrutinized. The crash factor data are then paired with the construction plans, construction logs, and crash report information with the objective of capturing the most complete record possible for each of the crash events.
Methods The initial steps in the crash investigation focus on isolating the motorcycle and work zone related crashes in Ohio. Statelevel crash data were chosen due to the data on the number and types of crashes available. Though national data sets such as the Fatality Analysis Reporting System data provided by NHTSA represent a wide geographic sample, the lack of specific categories for crash severity limits the number of crashes that can be included for analysis. As such, the state-level data provide an adequate number of crashes within a geographic area that is reasonable to investigate using construction documents. All crash data were initially obtained from the state database at the Ohio Department of Public Safety (ODPS). All crashes are filtered down to motorcycle crashes and then limited to motorcycle crashes that are work zone–related, which is reported in the crash reports. The determination of work zone–related crashes allowed for the team to go through the construction documents to find more details and determine the paired data. The process for data collection may be seen in Fig. A1 (see online supplement).
419 In order to better understand the setup of the work zone, the construction plans identifying the setup are obtained from the ODOT. These construction plans contain maintenance of traffic plans and cross sections, type of project that the work is covering, length (distance) of the work, sequence of the work to occur, directions for installing traffic control devices, traffic signal timing, use of barriers and shoulder treatments, notices for lane closures, and lane closure restrictions. The phases of construction correlate to the setups of pavement markings, paths of travel, and locations of any barriers that are in use at the same segment of the roadway during different times in the construction process. The plans show various aspects of the roadway such as the lane lines, placement of portable concrete barriers (PCBs), impact attenuators, drums, and the pavement being constructed. The plans and cross sections are the most descriptive portions of the construction plans. This portion of the plans depicts the setup of the work zone and identifies potential hazards near the path of travel. Through the analysis of the construction plans and cross sections, several variables are derived to enable each work zone to be compared to other zones. These variables, which may be seen in Fig. A1, include the geometry of the roadway, work zone size, type of project, type of barrier(s) present, whether work was in progress next to the roadway, and whether work was in progress at the location of the crash. A portion of the construction plans obtained for this study did not contain all of the information the research team was seeking. As a result of incomplete project plans, some variables were left with unknown values. The projects associated with these plans may have encompassed more routine tasks, which do not require an in-depth description of the roadway. In addition, some variables (such as the type of barrier used) may change based on how the work is completed. For example, in a resurfacing project, the type of barrier used depends on the amount of pavement that is removed in the adjoining lane; more drastic changes in elevation will require more robust barriers. For this research, for those plans that could not yield all of the data, every attempt was made to search through additional documentation, but if the records were not available, the crash associated with the work zone was not included in the analysis of the data. In order to determine where and what type of work is occurring at the location of each crash, the research team obtained construction diaries for specific projects, which are notes from the construction site that state which contractors are on site and what type of work they performed. A breakdown of the information obtained from the daily construction diaries may be seen in Fig. A1. In order to obtain a clear understanding of what type of work is occurring for a given work site around the time of the crash, the research team looked at construction diaries for the 2 months preceding the month of the crash. The process of determining the phase of the work involves comparing the work being completed on the construction diaries to the various layouts on the different phases in the construction plans. This process can be difficult, because the construction diaries typically do not clearly identify the phases when a change in the maintenance of traffic setup occurs. The identification of the phase is essential in gaining the knowledge of a specific setup of the work zone. Because the construction
420 diaries lacked specific information regarding the location, the diaries are sometimes compared to the different phases in the weeks or months prior to the date of the crash in order to determine a definitive phase for the project. Once the crash and construction information is compiled, the type of work may be compared to the crashes occurring within the work zones. In order to compare project types, fatality rates are determined by dividing the number of crashes associated with a particular type of work.
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Data Of the 454 motorcycle crashes in Ohio that occurred in work zones from 2006 to 2011, 98% (443) include latitude and longitude, allowing for them to be geographically located. The collection of data from the ODOT and ODPS data sets provided in-depth information on the occurrence of each crash. Descriptive statistics of the collected data identify factors related to each crash. These factors summarize the conditions and any related events that occurred throughout all of the crashes. The descriptive statistics are broken down into three different groups: general crash related, rider related, and work zone related. The general crash-related categories identify aspects of the crash that are related to the temporal and crash events, roadway, and conditions present at the time of the crash, and these may be seen in Table 1. The functional classifications with the highest number of crashes were principal and minor arterials. The projects on these higher functional class roadways are typically more complicated and lengthy, leaving the work zone more exposed. The work zone crashes are categorized into 4 different time categories: morning, afternoon, evening, and night. The majority of the crashes occurred during the afternoon and evening time periods; each of these time categories accounted for about 35% (155) of the crashes. These time splits support the idea that riding in Ohio is more of a hobby than a commuting option. The motorcycle crashes in work zones occurred throughout all types of roadway functional classes. Approximately 20% of the total crashes (n = 454) occurred on principal arterial interstates in urban locations. The remaining types of roadways accounted for a maximum of 5% of the crashes for each category. The vast majority (96%) of the crashes occurring in the work zones are not related to speeding. This is to be expected, because most construction zones employ speed calming measures. The majority of the crashes (73%) occur when the motorcyclist is moving essentially straight ahead rather than when the motorcyclist is turning, backing, changing lanes, or performing other movements. Only 11% of the crashes occur when the motorcyclist is slowing or stopping in traffic, and only 5% occur when the motorcyclist is changing lanes. A motorcyclist with a failure to control is the most common contributing circumstance, at 22% of all of the crashes. The next significant type of crash circumstance is following too closely, which accounted for about 17% of all crashes. The remaining crash circumstances, such as failure to yield, left of center, etc., accounted for 6% or less of the total number of crashes.
Maistros et al. Table 1. General crash descriptive statistics Time of day Morning Afternoon Evening Late night Functional class Principal arterial—interstate (rural) Principal arterial—other (rural) Minor arterial (rural) Major collector (rural) Minor collector (rural) Local (rural) Principal arterial—interstate (urban) Principal arterial—other freeway/expressway (urban) Principal arterial—other (urban) Minor arterial (urban) Collector (urban) Local (urban) Unknown
Count 95 155 158 46 21 13 11 11 3 3 90 20 54 54 11 5 158
Speed relation Speeding Not speeding
18 436
Action Movements essentially straight ahead Backing Changing lanes Overtaking/passing Turning right Turning left Entering traffic lane Leaving traffic lane Slowing or stopped in traffic Other Unknown
331 2 24 7 6 11 9 3 49 4 8
Crash circumstance None Followed too closely Failure to control Unknown
144 76 102 26 Injury severities
Property damage only Injury Fatality Unknown
94 317 12 21
Additionally, though the 12 fatal crashes accounted for less than 3% of the crashes, crashes resulting in injuries accounted for almost 70% of all crashes. The rider-related categories, which pertain to the characteristics of the persons involved in the crash, may be seen in Table 2. This section of the descriptive statistics identifies the relation of the work zone crashes to the gender of the motorcyclist, age of the motorcyclist, presence of a passenger, and the motorcyclist’s use of alcohol. The majority of the crashes (91%) involved a motorcyclist who was a male. Four percent of crashes were related to female motorcyclists. In the remaining 5% of crashes, the gender of the motorcyclist was unknown. In general, these trends follow motorcycle registration trends in Ohio. The age range of the motorcyclists is fairly spread out through several age ranges. The 40- to 49-year-old age range contained the most crashes, at 26% of all crashes. The 50- to 59-year-old age range and riders 29 years old and younger were next, with each age range involved in 20% of the crashes.
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Table 2. Rider-related crash statistics Gender Female Male Unknown
Table 3. Work zone crash statistics Count 19 414 21
Age range 29 and younger 30–39 40–49 50–59 60–69 70 and over Unknown
90 77 119 92 44 10 22 Motorcycle occupants
Single rider Rider with passenger
417 37
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Alcohol use Alcohol related Non-alcohol related Unknown
39 377 38
These age patterns are similar to those seen for all motorcycle crashes, indicating that there is no age-related issue that is particular to motorcyclists in work zones. Table 3 identifies the relation of the work zone–related factors. Of the total crashes, complete work zone documentation was obtained for 183 crashes. Document availability was based on the coordinating agency and their policy on retaining the information. Lane closures are the most common type of work zone in which motorcycle crashes occur, representing 37% of all crashes (n = 454). Work on the median or shoulder returned the second highest level of work zone crashes, with 19% of the crashes. Lane shifts and crossovers follow closely behind, with 16% of the crashes. Of the known work zone types, intermittent or moving work resulted in the lowest number of crashes, at 12%. A large difference is noted for crashes occurring in the activity area of a work zone, as opposed to other sections of the work zone. A total of 58% of the crashes occurred in the activity area of the work zone. The transition area returned the next highest number of crashes, at 19% of crashes, and advanced warning areas accounted for 11% of the crashes. Comparatively, the activity zone is expected to have the highest number of crashes because transitions and advanced warning areas do not normally change the road surface of path of travel. Drums are the most commonly used type of barrier, and they are found in 24% of the work zones where crashes occurred. PCBs are used in work zones in 10% of the crashes. The combination of drums and PCBs is the barrier system found in work zones with the least amount of crashes, at 6%. Only one crash is attributed to a work zone with a barricade closing off a roadway, representing less than 1% of all of the crashes. Only 3% of the crashes did not involve a barrier within the proximity of the crash. In the 454 total crashes considered in this study, 44 different types of work were being completed on the day of the crash. Paving occurred during 20% of the crashes, which is the most common of all of the types of work being performed. Excavation occurred during 14% of crashes, and 12% of the crashes occurred in zones where pavement marking was taking
Work zone type Lane closure Lane shift/crossover Work on shoulder or median Intermittent or moving work Other Unknown Work zone location Before the first work zone warning sign Advanced warning area Transition area Activity area Termination area Unknown
Count 166 71 84 55 65 13 30 51 85 264 4 20
Barrier type Barricade Concrete Drums Drums and concrete None Unknown
1 44 108 29 14 258 Type of work
Aggregate placement Bridge construction Excavation Pavement marking Pavement milling Paving Pouring concrete None Unknown
41 41 65 55 45 92 41 22 259
place on the day of the crash. Pavement milling activities were taking place during 10% of the crashes. Aggregate placement and bridge construction occurred during one less crash,which was still at 9% of the total amount of crashes.
Results and Discussion The purpose of collecting these data is to determine how construction work affects motorcyclists. Table A1 (see online supplement) is a comparison of the number and severities of crashes associated with the various types of construction work. From Table A1 it may be seen that 8 general types of work, composed of related subtypes, are formed from the related motorcycle crashes. The work type groups include bridge work, aggregate work, earthwork, median and shoulder work, pavement work, traffic control, utility work, and concrete work. The related subgroups of each general work activity are derived from more specific information taken from the construction documents. During the classification process, it was found that several crashes were related to multiple types of work. As such, the summation of the work subtypes does not necessarily equal the total number of related crashes in a given work type. For instance, when a crash occurs in a bridge construction zone, it is more than reasonable that within a given bridge work zone, sand blasting work may be conducted in addition to the bridge construction activities. These activities may or may not have been happening simultaneously at the same location, but not all construction documents clarify these sorts of details.
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422 Because of the lack of clarity, this crash would be classified as having occurred during both bridge construction and sand blasting. It may be seen from Table A1 that the pavement work type category had the highest frequency of related crashes. However, it may also be seen that this work type had the lowest fatal crash rates. Pavement projects are generally conducted over a long period of time and are generally large-scale operations having more frequent traffic control changes than other project types, which have more permanent construction limits. Though vehicle operators may be aware that they are approaching a construction zone and may reduce their speed accordingly, there may be confusion as to lane changes and direction. The work type with the second highest frequency of related crashes is general earthwork, which has the highest number of fatal crashes per total related crashes at a rate of 5.1. Contrastingly, median and shoulder work has the lowest percentage of related crashes, yet it has the second highest fatality rate at 4.8. A major consideration is the roadside activities that are occurring when vehicles leave the roadway, particularly subtype groups of grading and guardrail construction. During grading work, the exit slope of the roadway may not be suitable for an emergency exit. If there is a drop-off from the roadway surface, it is reasonable to see how a vehicle with 2 wheels will have a much harder time coping with the transition than a 4-wheel vehicle. As for guardrails, it is reasonable to consider that during the placement of a guardrail, a roadside hazard is temporarily left exposed. In certain cases, the exposed partially constructed posts of the guardrails can become a hazard themselves. Additionally, in the state of Ohio, cable median barrier construction has become quite popular in the last several years. Though these cable barriers benefit passenger vehicles, they may present a more of a hazard for motorcyclists who do not have the same protection as the occupants of passenger vehicles in the event of a crash (EuroRAP Motorcycle Safety 2008). Motorcycle crashes involving a roadside object are covered extensively by Daniello and Gabler (2011). Traffic control work may involve either the permanent implementation of traffic control devices, such as pavement markings, or the implementation of temporary traffic control efforts that are specific to the construction zones. Though both types of traffic control work share similar hazards, the expectations for an individual construction zone will change. It is expected that temporary control efforts used in semipermanent construction zones also have speed calming measures associated with them. In contrast, when new pavement markings are installed, the construction zone is frequently a moving one, which may not be anticipated by roadway users and may not have the benefits of speed calming measures. This contrast in expectations may explain why as a total group, the traffic control subtype has a low fatality rating, but the subtype of pavement markings shows a spike in fatal crash ratios. Similar to traffic control, utility work as a group does not appear to be particularly dangerous to motorcycle operators until the subtypes are examined. Both underdrain installation and sewer construction have fatal percentage rates above 4. These types of construction often include excavation taking
Maistros et al. place directly on the roadway or next to the roadway and typically occur on lower functional class roadways. The proximal digging locations may require the construction crew to reduce lane widths and introduce metal plates in the roadway. Though narrower roads may not be as much of an issue for motorcycles as they are for passenger cars (they may cause a full-sized vehicle to improperly leave its lane), the introduction of metal plates is of greater concern for motorcycle operators. The increased hazards of metal plates for motorcyclists as compared to passenger cars are detailed in Cottrell (2006). The major limitation of the work type research is the inability to capture motorcycle VMT within the construction work zones. Though this information would allow the number of crashes to be normalized by the VMT through the work zones, it is not financially or logistically feasible to obtain this information for each work zone. Moreover, the information pertaining to barriers and type of work was not available for 57% of the crashes. The availability of this information and any other unknowns may have a significant effect on the results and the interpretation of which types of construction zones are the most dangerous. Though a study encompassing several geographic regions is not cost or time effective, the scale of this study may influence a geographical bias toward the tendencies in the state of Ohio. From this work, several key findings have been found. Several preliminary links have been established between the severities of motorcycle crashes in work zones and the type of work zone that is being studied. This work has outlined that the type of work and associated traffic control measures may change the expectations and behaviors of motorcycle riders. These changes have a significant impact on the frequency and severity of crashes associated with motorcycles in work zones. In particular, it is seen that semipermanent work zones are effective in reducing speed, but the changes in pavement conditions and path of travel result in more crashes that are less severe. Contrastingly, moving work zones without speed calming measures are seen to have less frequent but more severe crashes. Further works need to be done to compile additional data in order to determine the marginal effects through the use of tools such as regression and econometric modeling. Sudden lane changes may be particularly hazardous to motorcyclists, because they are already difficult to see, whether or not a construction zone is present.
Acknowledgments The authors thank the United States Department of Transportation (USDOT), the National Highway Traffic Safety and Administration (NHTSA), the Ohio Department of Public Safety (ODPS). The research was performed at the University of Akron and the contents reflect the views of the authors, who are responsible for the facts and the accuracy of the data presented herein. The contents do not necessarily reflect the official views or polices of the USDOT, NHTSA, and ODPS.
Motorcycle Crashes in Work Zones Funding The authors thank the Ohio Department of Transportation (ODOT) for financial support.
Supplemental Materials Supplemental data for this article can be accessed on the publisher’s website.
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