423
An In-service Program for Secondary Learning Disabilities Teachers Linda Nielsen, EdD
R
ecent legislation has led to an increase in the number of exceptional students in regular classes (Davis 1973). Yet many teachers, particularly in high schools, feel inadequately prepared to cope with this additional demand. Furthermore, services for students with secondary learning problems are virtually nonexistent, and entrance requirements may exclude many students who need assistance (U.S. Dept. HEW 1977). Most alternative programs focus only on vocational training rather than on preparation of regular classroom teachers (U.S. Dept. HEW 1977). The U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare report and an extensive review of the literature on delinquency (Gagne 1977) recommend the establishment of more public school programs for learning disabled adolescents. The in-service program in this study was designed to fulfill some of these needs by assisting high school teachers whose students had primary and secondary learning problems. Although in-service programs have been used repeatedly to educate teachers about exceptional students (Davis & Wyatt 1971, Deno 1971, Fox 1972, Hammill 1972, Lewis 1971, Shaw & Shaw 1973), the ability actually to change teachers' attitudes or conduct has been questioned (Bowles & Nelson 1976, Cantrel 1970, Edgar 1972, Gardner 1972, Madsen, Becker, & Thomas 1968). Likewise, traditional consultation programs may not produce changes (Byron 1968, Cowen 1966, Pierce 1968). In contrast, some programs have been successful (Boeck & Foster 1975, Brooks & Bransford 1970, Carlson & Potter
1972, Glass & Meckler 1972, Haring & Cruickshank 1958, Overline 1972, Robinson & Falconer 1972, Soloway 1974, Yates 1973). Perhaps one variable contributing to these apparent contradictions is the absence of replication of procedures and adequate evaluation criteria (Meyers, Friedman, & Gaughan 1975). This project was also designed to specify the procedures for training teachers and the methods actually used in their classrooms. The program was based on three essential premises: (1) Adolescents can be motivated, and instruction can be individualized with innovative curriculum materials. (2) Contingency management can improve social conduct and academic achievement. (3) Expensive gadgets and large consulting staffs are not prerequisites for altering teachers' habits (Bradfield 1974, Deno 1973, Gardner 1977, Reynolds & Davis 1971, Soloway 1974). The project also incorporated suggestions of experienced researchers. Meyers (1975) recommended that consultation be conducted in small groups and include classroom observations. Similarly, Caplan (1970) encouraged documentation of all meetings and written evaluations of students' changes. Cronbach (1972) proposed that researchers cease arguing over which single teaching technique is superior and recognize that a variety of tactics can be appropriate. Collecting data that reveal side effects and students' attitudes has also been recommended (Messick 1972). Also, popular statistical analyses that only
70
Journal of Learning Disabilities
Downloaded from ldx.sagepub.com at Harvard Libraries on July 1, 2015
424 utilize group means have been considered potentially insensitive in assessing a program's value for individual students (Messick 1972).
METHOD Student and Teacher Samples One hundred fifty students were assigned to classes for underachievers on the recommendation of the previous English teacher. Reading achievement levels were preprimer through 11th grade. Thirty-two percent had previously failed one year in school; 10% were black, 30% were employed part-time, and 54% were male. After the first nine weeks of school, teacher surveys indicated that 14% of these students were perceived as extremely disruptive and 25% as sometimes disruptive. Only 2A% had perfect attendance records. Many exhibited behaviors labeled as characteristic of learning disabled students—short attention span, inability to follow directions, lack of motivation, being easily distracted, test anxiety, academic underachievement, and inconsistency in work output. None of the five teachers had completed any special education courses, and only one had studied behavior modification. Each rated herself moderately to slightly effective in teaching learning disabled students.
Consulting Procedures The consultant presented ten 90-minute workshops on the topics of mainstreaming and learning disabilities, learning modalities, individualized instruction, diagnostic reading tests, innovative curriculum materials, behavioral objectives, contingency contracts, educational games, noncompetitive grading, classroom arrangements, and learning centers (Nielsen 1977). Teachers were also required to read and discuss several books. After each workshop the consultant encouraged the teachers to implement any new technique that impressed them. Individual conferences were conducted weekly throughout the year. During these meetings the consultant helped each teacher design
and implement techniques from the workshops. Here are representative questions during these conferences: What student progress did you notice? What questions do you have in retrospect? What problems did you encounter? What resolutions have you considered? What are you excited about trying next? Would you be interested in trying my idea? How do you feel about the technique? Teachers recorded each new method, its advantages and disadvantages, how students reacted, and questions for the consultant.
RESULTS Teachers dramatically altered their teaching techniques between the beginning and the end of the school year. The strengths and weaknesses of each method were assessed by the teachers and the consultant (Table 1). None of the teachers had previously administered a reading inventory, yet all 150 students were tested by their teachers by the third month of the project. An entire storeroom of new curriculum materials, including educational games, was purchased for the students (Nielsen 1977). Results on the Rucker-Gable Educational Programming Scale (1974) showed that faculty members who had not participated in the project made no significant improvements in their scores. However, the five teachers who did participate in the program improved their scores in every subscale and significantly changed their attitudes toward severe learning disabilities (t = 2.93, p = .05). During the final week of school the five teachers and the consultant presented a two-hour in-service program to the faculty. The consultant summarized the project and explained that the project teachers would serve as the school's consultants in the future. To reinforce the peer-consultant concept, each of the five teachers was then assigned to a small group to lead discussion. The students also evaluated aspects of the program. Regardless of sex or grade level, more than 85% of the students preferred the contingency contracts to conventional teaching methods. The educational games, which were availa-
Volume 12, Number 6, ]une/July 1979
Downloaded from ldx.sagepub.com at Harvard Libraries on July 1, 2015
71
425 TABLE 1. Teacher assessments of new techniques implemented.
Method
I
Rating*
Major advantages
Individualized instruction Made students feel accountable Easy, expedient grading Majority became motivated Students achieved more
Major disadvantages Time-consuming initially Difficulty choosing criteria Slower students needed oral teacher instruction
Academic contract (5) t
5
Games as rewards (5)
4.5 Eliminated undesirable conduct Saved my nagging voice Lessened my frustration in motivating students Peer control increased
Some chose not to play Noise level became annoying Students always wanted more free days for games
Room rearrangement (3)
4.3 Decreased cheating Improved student discipline Allowed more teacher mobility
None
Distribute test questions beforehand (2)
4
Student input into curriculum (3)
4.5 Students worked harder Made students feel important
Set some criteria too low
Peer grading or proofreading (3)
3.5 More accurate work submitted Aided slowest students most
Cheating did occur
Students had definite goals Grades improved Students seemed more relaxed No more "I've got a secret" attitude on test days
5 Write comments or use "smilies" to grade papers (2) Award points for attendance (4)
5
I
Student-written 3 academic contract
|
(continued on next page)
Some seemed to memorize without understanding the concept
Created student interest Provided specific feedback
Time consuming
Rewarded students who tried
Not effective for everyone
Motivated students
Set some criteria too low
ble to those who had earned leisure time by
unique compared to other in-service or consult-
fulfilling their weekly contracts, were also enthu-
ing programs. The consultant was available for
siastically received. The most popular games and
10 months and provided specific ideas for classes
students' suggestions for improving the program
instead of lecturing. The consultant visited the
were recorded (Nielsen 1977).
Evaluation of Consultation
classes regularly and helped execute lesson plans. Positive changes in the students' behavior could actually be seen, although more work was
The teachers rated the program favorably. They
required of the teachers than in other in-service
also identified ways in which this project was
programs. The consultant's experiences as a Journal of Learning Disabilities
72
Downloaded from ldx.sagepub.com at Harvard Libraries on July 1, 2015
426 1
(Table 1 continued) Method
Rating*
Major advantages
Major disadvantages
Film days for motivation
5
Improved oral communication
None
I
Student resubmits graded work
4
Material was mastered
Some chose not to resubmit
I I
Dyad projects with 5 shared grade
Peer tutoring occurred
Sometimes breeded mischief
Points for daily 4 completion of work
Increased output
None
Student records 3 amount and grade of work completed
Saves teacher time
Some cheated
Excellent motivation
Time consuming
Choosing a nontra- 5 ditional novel for class reading
Excitement about reading
None
5 Posting names of high test-scorers
Encouraged students Dispelled myths about who was incompetent among peers
None
Learning centers
5
Students worked alone Much peer tutoring Expedient grading system Increased motivation
None
Student records daily work completed
5
Eliminated tension and arguments with student Improved the student's grade for first time
None
Teacher creates word games
5
* Rating Scale: 1 = useless; 2 = minimally effective; 3 = averageeffectiveness, probably will not use this again; 4 = effective, definitely will use this again; 5 = excelle nt, would recommend to all teachers. t Number of teachers who chose to utilize the technique if more than one.
teacher created a common understanding of
strates that high school teachers' attitudes and
classroom life and the students' needs. The
instructional techniques and the curriculum for
teachers' evaluations of each workshop and
learning disabled adolescents can be altered
books were also recorded (Nielsen 1977).
through consultation. Personnel in correctional institutions state that several restraints interfere
DISCUSSION
with meeting the educational needs of delinquents with learning problems—brevity of con-
The outgrowth of this project, directed at in-
finement, severity of the problems, and shortage
service training of secondary teachers, demon-
of diagnosticians and special education person-
Volume 12, Number 6, June/July 1979
Downloaded from ldx.sagepub.com at Harvard Libraries on July 1, 2015
73
427 nel (U.S. Dept. HEW 1977). These same problems are prevalent in most public high schools, but this project shows that progress is possible despite these obstacles.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT The pilot project described in this study was supported through funds made available by Title VI, Part D, Handicapped Teacher Education.
ABOUT THE AUTHOR Linda Nielsen is an assistant professor in the Department of Education, Wake Forest University, Winston Salem, N.C., and teaches educational psychology and statistics. She received her MA in counseling and her EdD in educational psychology from the University of Tennessee at Knoxville. She taught four years in public high schools and has worked as a consultant and researcher on several nationally funded grants for adolescents with academic and social problems. Requests for reprints should be addressed to Department of Education, Wake Forest University, Winston-Salem, N.C. 27109.
REFERENCES Boeck, D., Foster, G., The effectiveness of a learning disabilities inservice program. Psychology in the Schools, 1975,12, 409-412. Bowles, E., Nelson, R., Training teachers as mediators: Efficacy of workshop versus bug in the ear. Journal of School Psychology, 1976,14,15-25. Bradfield, R. (Ed.), Behavior Modification of Learning Disabilities. San Rafael, Calif.: Academic Therapy, 1974. Brooks, B., Bransford, L., Modification of teachers' attitudes toward exceptional children. Exceptional Children, 1970, 36, 770-771. Bryon, R., The Elementary School Project. Baltimore: University of Maryland Research Center, 1968. Cantrel, R., Efficacy of inservice training of teachers in operant techniques. Dissertation Abstracts International, 1970, 30, 4301-A. Caplan, G., Theory and Practice of Mental Health Consultation. New York: Basic Books, 1970. Carlson, L., Potter, R., Training classroom teachers to provide in class services for exceptional children in rural areas. Journal of School Psychology, 1972,10,147-151. Cowen, F., Prevention of emotional disorders in the school setting. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 1966,30,381-387. Cronbach, L., The logic of experiments on discovery. In L. Sperry (Ed.), Learning Performance and Individual Differences. Glenview, 111.: Scott, Foresman 6- Co., 1972. Davis, M., Wyatt, K., Handicapped teachers or teachers of the handicapped? In M. Reynolds, M. Davis (Eds.), Exceptional Children in Regular Classrooms. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota, 1971. Davis, M., Foreword. In E. Deno (Ed.), Instructional Alternatives for Exceptional Children. Arlington, Va.: Council for Exceptional Children, 1973.
Deno, E., Instructional Alternatives for Exceptional Children. Arlington, Va.: Council for Exceptional Children, 1973. Edgar, E., Teacher behavior changes as a function of training in operant principles. Dissertation Abstracts International, 1972, 33, 1561-A. Fox, W., Consulting teacher program. In Innovative Non-categorical and Interrelated Projects in the Education of the Handicapped. Proceedings of Special Study Institute, Florida State University, 1972. Gagne, E., Educating delinquents: A review of research. Journal of Special Education, 1977, 11, 13-27. Gardner, J., Teaching behavior modification to nonprofessionals. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1972, 5, 517521. Gardner, W., Learning and Behavior Characteristics of Exceptional Children. Boston: Allyn
An In-service Program for Secondary Learning Disabilities Teachers Linda Nielsen, EdD
R
ecent legislation has led to an increase in the number of exceptional students in regular classes (Davis 1973). Yet many teachers, particularly in high schools, feel inadequately prepared to cope with this additional demand. Furthermore, services for students with secondary learning problems are virtually nonexistent, and entrance requirements may exclude many students who need assistance (U.S. Dept. HEW 1977). Most alternative programs focus only on vocational training rather than on preparation of regular classroom teachers (U.S. Dept. HEW 1977). The U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare report and an extensive review of the literature on delinquency (Gagne 1977) recommend the establishment of more public school programs for learning disabled adolescents. The in-service program in this study was designed to fulfill some of these needs by assisting high school teachers whose students had primary and secondary learning problems. Although in-service programs have been used repeatedly to educate teachers about exceptional students (Davis & Wyatt 1971, Deno 1971, Fox 1972, Hammill 1972, Lewis 1971, Shaw & Shaw 1973), the ability actually to change teachers' attitudes or conduct has been questioned (Bowles & Nelson 1976, Cantrel 1970, Edgar 1972, Gardner 1972, Madsen, Becker, & Thomas 1968). Likewise, traditional consultation programs may not produce changes (Byron 1968, Cowen 1966, Pierce 1968). In contrast, some programs have been successful (Boeck & Foster 1975, Brooks & Bransford 1970, Carlson & Potter
1972, Glass & Meckler 1972, Haring & Cruickshank 1958, Overline 1972, Robinson & Falconer 1972, Soloway 1974, Yates 1973). Perhaps one variable contributing to these apparent contradictions is the absence of replication of procedures and adequate evaluation criteria (Meyers, Friedman, & Gaughan 1975). This project was also designed to specify the procedures for training teachers and the methods actually used in their classrooms. The program was based on three essential premises: (1) Adolescents can be motivated, and instruction can be individualized with innovative curriculum materials. (2) Contingency management can improve social conduct and academic achievement. (3) Expensive gadgets and large consulting staffs are not prerequisites for altering teachers' habits (Bradfield 1974, Deno 1973, Gardner 1977, Reynolds & Davis 1971, Soloway 1974). The project also incorporated suggestions of experienced researchers. Meyers (1975) recommended that consultation be conducted in small groups and include classroom observations. Similarly, Caplan (1970) encouraged documentation of all meetings and written evaluations of students' changes. Cronbach (1972) proposed that researchers cease arguing over which single teaching technique is superior and recognize that a variety of tactics can be appropriate. Collecting data that reveal side effects and students' attitudes has also been recommended (Messick 1972). Also, popular statistical analyses that only
70
Journal of Learning Disabilities
Downloaded from ldx.sagepub.com at Harvard Libraries on July 1, 2015
424 utilize group means have been considered potentially insensitive in assessing a program's value for individual students (Messick 1972).
METHOD Student and Teacher Samples One hundred fifty students were assigned to classes for underachievers on the recommendation of the previous English teacher. Reading achievement levels were preprimer through 11th grade. Thirty-two percent had previously failed one year in school; 10% were black, 30% were employed part-time, and 54% were male. After the first nine weeks of school, teacher surveys indicated that 14% of these students were perceived as extremely disruptive and 25% as sometimes disruptive. Only 2A% had perfect attendance records. Many exhibited behaviors labeled as characteristic of learning disabled students—short attention span, inability to follow directions, lack of motivation, being easily distracted, test anxiety, academic underachievement, and inconsistency in work output. None of the five teachers had completed any special education courses, and only one had studied behavior modification. Each rated herself moderately to slightly effective in teaching learning disabled students.
Consulting Procedures The consultant presented ten 90-minute workshops on the topics of mainstreaming and learning disabilities, learning modalities, individualized instruction, diagnostic reading tests, innovative curriculum materials, behavioral objectives, contingency contracts, educational games, noncompetitive grading, classroom arrangements, and learning centers (Nielsen 1977). Teachers were also required to read and discuss several books. After each workshop the consultant encouraged the teachers to implement any new technique that impressed them. Individual conferences were conducted weekly throughout the year. During these meetings the consultant helped each teacher design
and implement techniques from the workshops. Here are representative questions during these conferences: What student progress did you notice? What questions do you have in retrospect? What problems did you encounter? What resolutions have you considered? What are you excited about trying next? Would you be interested in trying my idea? How do you feel about the technique? Teachers recorded each new method, its advantages and disadvantages, how students reacted, and questions for the consultant.
RESULTS Teachers dramatically altered their teaching techniques between the beginning and the end of the school year. The strengths and weaknesses of each method were assessed by the teachers and the consultant (Table 1). None of the teachers had previously administered a reading inventory, yet all 150 students were tested by their teachers by the third month of the project. An entire storeroom of new curriculum materials, including educational games, was purchased for the students (Nielsen 1977). Results on the Rucker-Gable Educational Programming Scale (1974) showed that faculty members who had not participated in the project made no significant improvements in their scores. However, the five teachers who did participate in the program improved their scores in every subscale and significantly changed their attitudes toward severe learning disabilities (t = 2.93, p = .05). During the final week of school the five teachers and the consultant presented a two-hour in-service program to the faculty. The consultant summarized the project and explained that the project teachers would serve as the school's consultants in the future. To reinforce the peer-consultant concept, each of the five teachers was then assigned to a small group to lead discussion. The students also evaluated aspects of the program. Regardless of sex or grade level, more than 85% of the students preferred the contingency contracts to conventional teaching methods. The educational games, which were availa-
Volume 12, Number 6, ]une/July 1979
Downloaded from ldx.sagepub.com at Harvard Libraries on July 1, 2015
71
425 TABLE 1. Teacher assessments of new techniques implemented.
Method
I
Rating*
Major advantages
Individualized instruction Made students feel accountable Easy, expedient grading Majority became motivated Students achieved more
Major disadvantages Time-consuming initially Difficulty choosing criteria Slower students needed oral teacher instruction
Academic contract (5) t
5
Games as rewards (5)
4.5 Eliminated undesirable conduct Saved my nagging voice Lessened my frustration in motivating students Peer control increased
Some chose not to play Noise level became annoying Students always wanted more free days for games
Room rearrangement (3)
4.3 Decreased cheating Improved student discipline Allowed more teacher mobility
None
Distribute test questions beforehand (2)
4
Student input into curriculum (3)
4.5 Students worked harder Made students feel important
Set some criteria too low
Peer grading or proofreading (3)
3.5 More accurate work submitted Aided slowest students most
Cheating did occur
Students had definite goals Grades improved Students seemed more relaxed No more "I've got a secret" attitude on test days
5 Write comments or use "smilies" to grade papers (2) Award points for attendance (4)
5
I
Student-written 3 academic contract
|
(continued on next page)
Some seemed to memorize without understanding the concept
Created student interest Provided specific feedback
Time consuming
Rewarded students who tried
Not effective for everyone
Motivated students
Set some criteria too low
ble to those who had earned leisure time by
unique compared to other in-service or consult-
fulfilling their weekly contracts, were also enthu-
ing programs. The consultant was available for
siastically received. The most popular games and
10 months and provided specific ideas for classes
students' suggestions for improving the program
instead of lecturing. The consultant visited the
were recorded (Nielsen 1977).
Evaluation of Consultation
classes regularly and helped execute lesson plans. Positive changes in the students' behavior could actually be seen, although more work was
The teachers rated the program favorably. They
required of the teachers than in other in-service
also identified ways in which this project was
programs. The consultant's experiences as a Journal of Learning Disabilities
72
Downloaded from ldx.sagepub.com at Harvard Libraries on July 1, 2015
426 1
(Table 1 continued) Method
Rating*
Major advantages
Major disadvantages
Film days for motivation
5
Improved oral communication
None
I
Student resubmits graded work
4
Material was mastered
Some chose not to resubmit
I I
Dyad projects with 5 shared grade
Peer tutoring occurred
Sometimes breeded mischief
Points for daily 4 completion of work
Increased output
None
Student records 3 amount and grade of work completed
Saves teacher time
Some cheated
Excellent motivation
Time consuming
Choosing a nontra- 5 ditional novel for class reading
Excitement about reading
None
5 Posting names of high test-scorers
Encouraged students Dispelled myths about who was incompetent among peers
None
Learning centers
5
Students worked alone Much peer tutoring Expedient grading system Increased motivation
None
Student records daily work completed
5
Eliminated tension and arguments with student Improved the student's grade for first time
None
Teacher creates word games
5
* Rating Scale: 1 = useless; 2 = minimally effective; 3 = averageeffectiveness, probably will not use this again; 4 = effective, definitely will use this again; 5 = excelle nt, would recommend to all teachers. t Number of teachers who chose to utilize the technique if more than one.
teacher created a common understanding of
strates that high school teachers' attitudes and
classroom life and the students' needs. The
instructional techniques and the curriculum for
teachers' evaluations of each workshop and
learning disabled adolescents can be altered
books were also recorded (Nielsen 1977).
through consultation. Personnel in correctional institutions state that several restraints interfere
DISCUSSION
with meeting the educational needs of delinquents with learning problems—brevity of con-
The outgrowth of this project, directed at in-
finement, severity of the problems, and shortage
service training of secondary teachers, demon-
of diagnosticians and special education person-
Volume 12, Number 6, June/July 1979
Downloaded from ldx.sagepub.com at Harvard Libraries on July 1, 2015
73
427 nel (U.S. Dept. HEW 1977). These same problems are prevalent in most public high schools, but this project shows that progress is possible despite these obstacles.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT The pilot project described in this study was supported through funds made available by Title VI, Part D, Handicapped Teacher Education.
ABOUT THE AUTHOR Linda Nielsen is an assistant professor in the Department of Education, Wake Forest University, Winston Salem, N.C., and teaches educational psychology and statistics. She received her MA in counseling and her EdD in educational psychology from the University of Tennessee at Knoxville. She taught four years in public high schools and has worked as a consultant and researcher on several nationally funded grants for adolescents with academic and social problems. Requests for reprints should be addressed to Department of Education, Wake Forest University, Winston-Salem, N.C. 27109.
REFERENCES Boeck, D., Foster, G., The effectiveness of a learning disabilities inservice program. Psychology in the Schools, 1975,12, 409-412. Bowles, E., Nelson, R., Training teachers as mediators: Efficacy of workshop versus bug in the ear. Journal of School Psychology, 1976,14,15-25. Bradfield, R. (Ed.), Behavior Modification of Learning Disabilities. San Rafael, Calif.: Academic Therapy, 1974. Brooks, B., Bransford, L., Modification of teachers' attitudes toward exceptional children. Exceptional Children, 1970, 36, 770-771. Bryon, R., The Elementary School Project. Baltimore: University of Maryland Research Center, 1968. Cantrel, R., Efficacy of inservice training of teachers in operant techniques. Dissertation Abstracts International, 1970, 30, 4301-A. Caplan, G., Theory and Practice of Mental Health Consultation. New York: Basic Books, 1970. Carlson, L., Potter, R., Training classroom teachers to provide in class services for exceptional children in rural areas. Journal of School Psychology, 1972,10,147-151. Cowen, F., Prevention of emotional disorders in the school setting. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 1966,30,381-387. Cronbach, L., The logic of experiments on discovery. In L. Sperry (Ed.), Learning Performance and Individual Differences. Glenview, 111.: Scott, Foresman 6- Co., 1972. Davis, M., Wyatt, K., Handicapped teachers or teachers of the handicapped? In M. Reynolds, M. Davis (Eds.), Exceptional Children in Regular Classrooms. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota, 1971. Davis, M., Foreword. In E. Deno (Ed.), Instructional Alternatives for Exceptional Children. Arlington, Va.: Council for Exceptional Children, 1973.
Deno, E., Instructional Alternatives for Exceptional Children. Arlington, Va.: Council for Exceptional Children, 1973. Edgar, E., Teacher behavior changes as a function of training in operant principles. Dissertation Abstracts International, 1972, 33, 1561-A. Fox, W., Consulting teacher program. In Innovative Non-categorical and Interrelated Projects in the Education of the Handicapped. Proceedings of Special Study Institute, Florida State University, 1972. Gagne, E., Educating delinquents: A review of research. Journal of Special Education, 1977, 11, 13-27. Gardner, J., Teaching behavior modification to nonprofessionals. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1972, 5, 517521. Gardner, W., Learning and Behavior Characteristics of Exceptional Children. Boston: Allyn
