Copyright © eContent Management Pty Ltd. Contemporary Nurse (2014) 48(2): 229–239.
An exploratory study of the relationship between learning styles and academic performance among students in different nursing programs Yuh-Shiow Li*, Wen-Pin Yu+, Chin-Fang Liu*, Sue-Heui Shieh* and Bao-Huan Yang* *Department of Nursing, Chang Gung University of Science and Technology, Kweishan, Taoyuan, Taiwan; +Department of Nursing, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taoyuan, Taiwan
Abstract: Background: Learning style is a major consideration in planning for effective and efficient instruction
and learning. Learning style has been shown to influence academic performance in the previous research. Little is known about Taiwanese students’ learning styles, particularly in the field of nursing education. Aim: This purpose of this study was to identify the relationship between learning styles and academic performance among nursing students in a 5-year associate degree of nursing (ADN) program and a 2-year bachelor of science in nursing (BSN) program in Taiwan. Methods/Design: This study employed a descriptive and exploratory design. The Chinese version of the Myers–Briggs type indicator Form M was an instrument. Data such as grade point average were obtained from the Office of Academic Affairs and the Registrar computerized records. Descriptive statistics, one-way analysis of variance and chi-square statistical analysis were used to explore the relationship between academic performance and learning style in Taiwanese nursing students. Results/Findings: The study sample included 285 nursing students: 96 students in a 2-year BSN program, and 189 students in a 5-year ADN program. Two common learning styles were found: Introversion, sensing, thinking, and judging; and introversion, sensing, feeling, and judging. A sensing–judging pair was identified in 43.3% of the participants. Academic performance was significantly related to learning style (p < 0.05, df = 15). Conclusion: The results of this study can help educators devise classroom and clinical instructional strategies that respond to individual needs in order to maximize academic performance and enhance student success. A large sample is recommended for further research. Understanding the learning style preferences of students can enhance learning for those who are under performing in their academic studies, thereby enhancing nursing education.
Keywords: learning styles, academic performance, associate degree of nursing, bachelor of science in nursing
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earning style is an important consideration when planning for effective and efficient instruction and learning (Childress, 2001; Li, Chen, Yang, & Liu, 2011). The best way to assist students is to create a harmonious learning environment, and to use teaching methods that are closely matched to the students’ preferred learning styles (Dart et al., 2000; McAllister, 2010). Moreover, the primary role of the teacher is to recognize potential in the students and to consciously plan for balanced personal development (Stellwagen, 2001). This leads to students being better able to manage their learning, and to teachers responding more effectively to individual student needs. Learning is a dynamic process; it is the product of student and teacher activity within a learning environment (Bankert & Kozel, 2005). In Taiwan, the dominant teaching style is lecturing (Chen, 2004). Because there is one dominant teaching style, many students might lack interest
or motivation to learn. Little, if any, research has been conducted to investigate the learning styles of Taiwanese nursing students (Chen & Lee, 2000; Li, 2004; Sun & Ho, 2007). The purpose of this study was to explore the relationship between learning style and academic performance in Taiwanese nursing students enrolled in two nursing programs: A 5-year associate degree of nursing (ADN) program, and a 2-year bachelor of science in nursing (BSN) program. Understanding this relationship will help devise effective instructional strategies that promote academic performance and enhance nursing education. Literature review Definition of learning styles Researchers claim that ‘studies classify different learning types and/or styles in different ways, their aims and approaches are similar’ (Demirbas & Demirkan, 2007, p. 346). ‘Learning styles’ are preferred ways of acquiring knowledge and drawing
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conclusions (Savvas, El-Kot, & Sadler-Smith, 2001). Learners have their preferred ways of perceiving, organizing and retaining information that are distinct and consistent (Chou & Wang, 2000; Hsu, 1999). Consequently, individuals favor particular methods of interacting with, taking in, and processing stimuli and information when they learn (Sirin & Guzel, 2006). Nursing education system in Taiwan There are three popular paths to enter the nursing profession in Taiwan. One path is to enter a university in order to receive a BSN degree after graduating. Another is to receive an associate degree after completing a 5-year ADN program. The final path is to receive a BSN degree after completing a 2-year BSN program; students who do this have previous nursing education (an ADN degree) before entering the 2-year BSN program. Figure 1 describes the various entrance pathways for becoming a nurse in Taiwan. Learning styles and the Myers–Briggs type indicator There are numerous models of learning styles and a variety of measurement instruments that can assess learning. Curry’s (1987) model has three levels, depicted as concentric circles: Instructional preference style at the outer level, information processing style at the middle level, and cognitive personality style at the inner core (Figure 2). Instructional preference is the most observable style, but least stable, because it interacts directly with elements of the physical learning environment, such as light and temperature (Hickcox, 1995); an appropriate measurement instrument is the Learning Preferences Inventory (Dunn & Dunn, 1999). The information processing level represents the ways in which an individual prefers to take in information (Hickcox, 1995), and can be assessed using Kolb’s (1985) Learning Style Inventory. The cognitive personality aspect is the most stable level of Curry’s model, as it interacts less directly with the environment and is thus more appropriate for predicting behavior; it can be assessed using the Myers–Briggs type indicator (MBTI) personality test (Myers, McCaulley, Quenk, & Hammer, 1998). Cognitive personality 230
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Graduate School Doctoral Program (4-8 years) Master Program (2-4 years)
University and College (BSN Degree) Baccalaureate Program (4 years)
Post Junior College Program (2 years)
Poly Technology College (BSN Degree) Post Junior Baccalaureate College Program Program (4 years) (2 years)
(ADN Degree) Senior High School (3 years)
Junior College (5 years)
Junior High School (3 years)
Elementary School (6 years)
Figure 1: Nursing education system in Taiwan
models measure pervasive and holistic dimensions of personality, which can be assessed by individuals’ learning styles. Relationships between learning styles and the MBTI are revealed in Curry’s model. The MBTI consists of four scales of paired opposites or dichotomies: extraversion/introversion (E/I), sensing/intuition (S/N), thinking/feeling (T/F), and judging/perceiving (J/P). Sixteen possible personality types can be derived through a combination of these four pairs. The MBTI is designed to identify individual differences that are in keeping with Jungian theory. Carl Jung first developed the idea of psychological types in 1921 (Jung, 1921/1971). He characterized personality in terms of ‘function–attitudes,’ reflecting combinations of a pair of psychological attitudes (E/I),
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Learning styles and academic performance
Instructional Preference
Information Processing
Cognitive Personality
Figure 2: Curry’s model of learning styles
and two pairs of psychological functions (S/N and T/F). The S/N pair concerns the manner in which incoming information is perceived, while the T/F pair concerns how action decisions are made on the basis of the obtained information. Myers and Briggs added a dichotomous pair of attitudes to Jung’s mental functions: Judging and perceiving. The J/P dichotomy concerns attitudes toward dealing with the outer world. The MBTI has been used extensively in a variety of settings to help explain individual differences (Salter, Evans, & Forney, 2006). Learning styles and academic performance Researchers support that there is a significant relationship between academic performance and the psychological preferences of medical students (Bitran, Lafuente, Zúñiga, Viviani, & Mena, 2004). The findings show that the interest and ability to communicate with people and the concern for harmony in male students, and the tendency to function in a systematic and orderly way in female students, are related to high academic performance in this study. Also, Myers et al. (1998) stated that a number of patterns have been identified that relate personality types to academic performance. Judging types have higher average grades and a higher IQ, whereas perceiving types have lower grades than expected for their IQ level.
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This seems to indicate that the need for closure and an organized approach to external events helps achieve higher grades. Furthermore, it could be that traditional testing and education systems favor the judging personality type. In addition, judging tends to be the predominant personality type of teachers. The relationship between the J/P attitude pair and academic performance seems to be the same whether dealing with college freshmen (Pollard, 1988), undergraduates in general (Woodruff & Clarke, 1996), or first-year medical students (Neral, 1989). Regarding the S/N function pair, intuitive personality types consistently have higher mean IQ scores than sensing types. The three aspects of personality that appear to contribute most to academic success and IQ are introversion, intuition and judging. Moreover, researchers state that both education and nursing students attract a proportionately higher number of SJ types than other types (Li, 2005; Li, Chen, & Tsai, 2008). People with SJ types persist in their studies to achieve graduation, do well professionally and populate their professions of choice (Tharp, 1992). In addition, ‘learning styles might influence clinical performance and be open to remediation (Murthy, O’Neill, & Byrne, 2013, p. 608).’ Brunt and Kopp (2007) indicate that using a learning style approach can empower staff development to create an appropriate environment for successful staff learning to assist in providing quality care while increasing retention. According to Kalsbeek (1986), research supports Myers and McCaulley’s findings that the sensing–intuitive scale is most strongly related to aptitude. Kalsbeek (1986) indicated that the mean SAT score for a concrete active learner (representing an extroverted sensing personality type) was 932, which is much lower than the 1,110 scored by the abstract reflective learner (representing an introverted–intuitive personality type). In addition, there is a significant relationship between institutional culture and the student. Tinto (2012) indicated that persistence in education is a function of a match between individuals, their motivation and academic ability and the institution’s academic and social characteristics, stating that the person–environment fit involves both social and academic integration. He wrote that
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‘To a very real degree, our failure to make significant improvement in learning and retention over the past several decades reflects the regrettable fact that students’ experience has not led students to become actively involved in learning (Tinto, 2012, p. 211).’ Similarly, it is thought that the better the fit between the student and the academic climate the better the chances for academic success (Busato, Prins, Elshout, & Hamaker, 2000). An institution that focuses on assessing students using academic counseling to meet individual student needs, and placing priority on the teaching–learning process, will have a greater tendency to provide a better student–institution fit, with one benefit of this being increased retention (Busato et al., 2000). Learning styles and non-western populations The MBTI has been used by Myers (1962) and McCaulley (1978) to predict success for health science professional nursing students. Using 7,226 nursing students in the United States, the sample included 70 licensed practical nurses, 566 nursing graduate students, 2,074 baccalaureate nursing students, 3,171 diploma nursing students and 1,345 2-year nursing college students. McCaulley (1978) described a sample grouping consisting of 58% extroverted, 60% sensing, 74% feeling, and 61% judging types. The most common types in the nursing student sample were extroverted, sensing, feeling, and judging (ESFJ), introverted, sensing, feeling, and judging (ISFJ), and extroverted, intuitive, feeling, and perceiving (ENFP). The Tracking Retention and Academic Integration by Learning Style project conducted at St. Louis University (Provost & Anchors, 1987) found that the personality types of nursing students are most frequently ENFP (19.5%), ESFJ (13.4%) and ESFP (13.4%). These findings support the idea that college freshmen who are nursing majors are more extroverted, sensing, feeling and judging than non-nursing majors. Learning is a complex multi-dimensional process (Snelgrove & Slater, 2003), with styles that appear to differ across cultures. For example, Chinese-Americans were found to be more able to handle their assignments independently, and to prefer a quiet environment and formal structure 232
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for learning. In contrast, African-Americans preferred to work with peers rather than by themselves, and tended to prefer sound, music and informal seating while learning (Dunn, 1993). Additionally, Duff, Johnston, and Laschinger (1992) used Kolb’s Learning Style Inventory and found that the learning styles within nursing faculties tended to be more concrete than abstract. The most common learning style was found to be ‘diverger’ (67.6%), which represents someone who prefers concrete and people-oriented learning experiences and reflective observation. Concrete learning styles appear to be more common in the field of nursing. Methods This study employed a descriptive and exploratory design. Nursing students were asked to complete Form M from the Chinese version of the MBTI, for which there were 93 forced-choice items. The participants were also asked to complete a onepage demographic sheet. Further data, including grade point average (GPA), were obtained from the Office of Academic Affairs and the Registrar computerized records. Students were not identified individually. Furthermore, the nursing students participated in the study voluntarily and anonymously. The researchers explained the MBTI instrument before the participants completed the questionnaires. Each subject signed an informed-consent form before voluntarily participating in the study. For the protection of the subjects’ human rights, the study was first approved by the University’s Institutional Review Board as being free of rights violations. Sample The sample of nursing participants was selected by random cluster sampling of a class section of approximately 50 students from each grade level in an institute located in the north of Taiwan. A total of 285 female nursing students participated in the study; 189 (47/270 first-year students, 47/440 second-year students, 48/530 third-year students, and 47/540 fourth-year students) in the 5-year ADN program, and 96 (46/285 first-year students and 48/280 second-year students) in the 2-year BSN program. The participation rate
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Learning styles and academic performance for completed questionnaires was 97%. Nursing students in grade five were not included in the study because at the time of data collection they were away from the school in clinical practice and preparing for their licensure exams. Instrumentation The MBTI was used as the instrument in this study for measuring students’ learning styles. The most current MBTI form, Form M contains 93 forced-choice items, and was published in English in 1998. The traditional Chinese version (Form M) was available in 2003. Participants completed the MBTI questionnaire in 15–25 minutes. The traditional Chinese translation of Form M of the MBTI was administered by qualified researchers in adherence to established guidelines. In addition, participants were asked to complete a onepage demographic survey to complement the MBTI. The MBTI was scored by the researchers who administered the instrument. Validity and reliability The validity of an instrument indicates how well the purpose of measurement is met. With Form M, the MBTI type was ranked most accurate by 58–78% of the participants (Wheeler, 2001). Furthermore, researchers reported that 62% of their subjects indicated the MBTI type was similar to the description stated in their study (Ware & Yokomoto, 1985). A confirmatory factor analysis of Form M using a national sample (N = 3,036) produced a four-factor model with a 0.95 adjusted goodness-of-fit (Myers et al., 1998). Researchers agreed that the Chinese version of the MBTI has high content validity, criterion referent validity and construct validity (Gu & Hu, 2012; Miao, Huangfu, Rosina, & Ren, 2000). The reliability of Form M ranged from 0.89 to 0.94 in a national sample of 3,036 participants (Myers et al., 1998), while in another national sample, of 2,859 participants, the coefficient alpha ranged from 0.91 to 0.92 (Quenk, 2000). Test–retest reliability, an estimate of how stable a characteristic is over time, is another common method for estimating reliability; it was found for Form M to range from 0.87 to 0.93 in a sample
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of 258 at the Public Utilities Company (Quenk, 2000). Thus, research indicates that the internal consistency of the four MBTI scales is high, and that the test–retest reliability of the MBTI shows consistency over time (Capraro & Capraro, 2002). Miao et al. (2000) also indicate that the test–retest reliability of the Chinese sample ranged from 0.54 to 0.73 in a sample of 2,123 for the four dimensions after 8 weeks. Consequently, the reliability of the Chinese version of the MBTI is appropriate. Overall, the MBTI is a highly reliable and valid instrument (Rushton, Morgan, & Richard, 2007). Curry (1987) ranked the MBTI with a strong rating for reliability and a good rating for validity. Previous research has established that the MBTI is a reliable and valid instrument in multiple cultures (Myers et al., 1998). The Chinese scholars also suggest that a major reason for the popularity of the MBTI is its relevance in many diverse areas, including education, career development, organizational behavior, psychotherapy with individuals, and in multicultural settings (Chen & Miao, 2007). Ethical considerations All information disclosed in the demographics and the MBTI questionnaires was kept anonymous. Participants were informed as to the purpose of the study. Student participation was anonymous and voluntary. Permission to conduct the study was granted by the president of the institute. Data analysis The MBTI questionnaires were scored by the researchers using the official answer key. Data were analyzed with an IBM-PC using the Statistical Package for the Social Science (SPSS 17.0). Demographic data were presented to describe the sample, using frequencies, percentages, ranges, means, standard deviations and modes. An alpha level of 0.05 was used. Descriptive statistics, one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and chi-square statistical analysis were used to explore the relationship between academic performance and learning style in Taiwanese nursing students.
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Results The ANOVA revealed a significant relationship between academic performance and learning style (p = 0.001, df = 15). Table 1 compares academic performance and MBTI preferences, and shows that nursing students with introvert, sensing, thinking and judging preferences had better scores than those with extrovert, intuitive, feeling, and perceiving preferences on the cumulative averages. Overall, nursing participants with introvert, sensing, thinking and judging (ISTJ) preferences had better academic performance in this study. Pairs and temperaments are usually used in MBTI studies to demonstrate how the combinations of any 2 letters among 16 types are manifested by the participants. As shown in Table 2, the predominant pairs and temperaments of the Taiwanese female nursing students were SJ (43.3%), IS (36.8%) IJ (34.7%), TJ (33.2%), and ST (32.1%). Less frequent were IN (16.2%), NJ (17.0%), and SP (17.7%). Table 3 presents the distribution of academic performance among different MBTI personality types. Results revealed that the most common learning styles were introversion, sensing, thinking, and judging (ISTJ) and ISFJ among Taiwanese nursing students. Table 3 demonstrates that the learning style of 14.0% (N = 40) of all participants was ISTJ and the learning style of
11.6% (N = 33) of all participants was ISFJ. As can be seen in Table 1, chi-square analyses revealed significant relationships between academic performance and the subscales N/S, T/F, and J/P (p = 0.044, p = 0.042, and p = 0.001, respectively). The findings also showed that there was a fairly significant difference between academic performance and the J/P dimension, though no statistically significant relationship between academic performance and the E/I dimension.
Table 1: Participating students’ academic performance and MBTI types Type
N
%
Mean
SD
GPA Minimum Maximum
E I
130 147
46.9 76.90 7.06 53.1 77.53 7.12
53.38 56.42
88.68 89.66
S N
169 108
61.0 77.92 7.01 39.0 76.16 7.11
53.38 56.45
89.66 88.92
T F
145 132
52.3 77.75 7.06 47.7 76.68 7.10
53.38 56.45
88.92 89.66
J* P*
167 110
60.3 78.61 6.41 39.7 75.14 7.58
62.10 53.38
89.66 88.68
N = 285; missing data included eight participants who did not finish the MBTI questionnaire completely. *There was a significant difference between academic performance and J/P dimension (p = 0.001). The others were no statistically significant differences (p > 0.05).
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Discussion The findings of the current study are in agreement with those of previous research, with judging personality types tending to obtain higher academic performances than perceiving types (Myers et al., 1998). The findings support Schurr Table 2: Pairs and temperaments of the participating nursing students
Type
N
%
IJ IP EP EJ
96 51 59 71
34.7 18.4 21.3 25.6
ST SF NF NT
89 80 52 56
32.1 28.9 18.8 20.2
SJ SP NP NJ
120 49 61 47
43.3 17.7 22.0 17.0
TJ TP FP FJ
92 53 57 75
33.2 19.1 20.6 27.1
IN EN IS ES
45 63 102 67
16.2 22.7 36.8 24.2
ET EF IF IT
66 64 68 79
23.8 23.1 24.5 28.5
Data in bold represents the highest percentage among the participating students.
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Learning styles and academic performance Table 3: Distribution of academic performance among different MBTI types Type
N
ENFJ 11 ENFP 21 ENTJ 13 ENTP 18 ESFJ 21 ESFP 11 ESTJ 26 ESTP 9 INFJ 10 INFP 10 INTJ 13 INTP 12 ISFJ 33 ISFP 15 ISTJ 40 ISTP 14 Missing 8 Total 285
Mean
SD
GPA Minimum
Maximum
77.59 7.52 73.63 6.80 75.51 6.33 76.36 6.41 79.37 6.05 74.47 5.43 80.64 5.28 72.83 11.09 77.53 8.22 74.41 9.17 80.60 4.99 75.24 6.80 77.45 6.75 77.12 7.06 78.79 6.28 76.05 8.94
65.27 62.31 66.92 67.18 65.55 68.20 72.23 53.38 62.59 56.45 72.56 61.27 62.10 64.06 65.78 56.42
87.78 86.64 88.06 88.68 88.29 86.05 88.22 88.20 87.55 86.84 88.92 86.42 89.66 87.82 88.80 88.34
77.24
53.38
89.66
7.09
Bold represents the highest number among the participating students.
and Ruble’s (1986) finding that the J/P dimension is a strong predictor of college performance. In this study, there was a significant relationship ( p = 0.001) between academic performance and the J/P dimension. This relationship may involve individuals with a judging type being more interested in getting decisions made, and those with a perceiving type tending to keep looking for additional information and alternatives in the process of making a decision. Judging types prefer structure and closure, which are conducive to commitment to academic goals. Overall, the results appear to indicate that nursing programs attract students who are likely to have thinking and judging personality types. Individuals with similar interests tend to gravitate toward certain professions, and although it is true that nursing programs attract students of all psychological types, certain types are clearly more likely to be selected into nursing programs worldwide. Research suggests that the majority of nursing students tend to have the sensing preference (Provost & Anchors, 1987; Wahl,
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1992). These students may perform well in nursing, although previous studies have found that intuitive individuals perform better academically than sensing individuals (Kalsbeek, 1986; Myers et al., 1998). Furthermore, the preference of T/F predicts academic performance; it is likely that the critical thinking skill involves objectivity over personal values. As a result, individuals with a thinking preference would process information better than individuals with a feeling preference (Kahn, Nauta, Gailbreath, Tipps, & Chartrand, 2002). Therefore, it is not surprising that the current study found nursing students with thinking and judging preferences to perform well academically. Whereas previous research indicated that the intuitive preference facilitates success in science more so than the sensing preference (Schurr & Ruble, 1986), the reverse was found in the current study. This may be because the needs of the sensing types for practical and realityoriented courses are met by nursing programs. Moreover, when the sensing preference is combined with certain others it seems to enhance academic achievement in nursing. From Tharp’s (1992) study, the ranking for the top five was SJ > ST > IN > IJ > IS, when total points are examined for combinations of two MBTI preferences. Therefore, sensing has a positive influence on achievement when combined with judging, thinking, or intuition. In addition, one possible explanation is the high proportion of participants with a sensing type (N = 169, 61.0% in the total sample, see Table 1), which may be a factor affecting the results of the current study. Research showed that 58% of nursing students in the United States were of the extroverted type, since the American culture emphasized extraversion in the group norm (McCaulley, 1981). In contrast, researchers found the model type for the Chinese group was ISTJ (Li et al., 2008, 2011). Therefore, culture may be a crucial aspect that influences how people learn. Studies can be done to compare nursing students in associate nursing programs and baccalaureate nursing programs in Taiwan and the United Stated for learning style differences. In this study, nursing students tended toward the sensing–judging
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combination, as did nursing students in the United States. Implications for nursing education In the current study, a preference for the sensing function indicates that Taiwanese nursing students typically perceive information through immediate experience and favor facts, observation, and practical learning. The sensing type of student tends to use five senses when learning, and prefers practical application and a pragmatic style. Nursing faculties need to be aware of this preference for direct experience and ‘handson’ learning. Teaching step-by-step is a useful method to assist learning. Furthermore, students who prefer the sensing type of learning styles are more persistent in nursing programs (Li et al., 2008; McCaulley, 1978; Provost & Anchors, 1987) and are more likely to remain in nursing programs. In other words, those students have a lower attrition rate in nursing programs. Instructors need to design programs in which the material is broken down into small sections so that students have plenty of time for observation and practice (Mamchur, 1996). The information presented should be relevant and have a practical purpose to aid students’ persistence in their nursing studies. While the current study found a majority of nursing students to be the sensing type of learners (N = 169, 61.0%), a significant proportion had a preference for the intuitive dimension (N = 108, 39.0%). Nursing educators need to be aware that both preferences are present within classroom and laboratory settings. The intuitive learner prefers exploring ideas, patterns and theory, and learns best by creative brainstorming and reflection. Nursing educators need to design a variety of teaching strategies that provide intuitive students with plenty of opportunities to invent, to create and to work independently (Mamchur, 1996). In matters of curriculum, nursing faculty members need to keep in mind that students with a thinking type tend to like logical rules. The thinking learners need a sense of mastery to know things deeply in order to learn in an orderly fashion. On the other hand, learners with a feeling preference rely primarily on personal or social 236
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values when making a decision, and nursing educators need to offer support and approval in facilitating the learning of these individuals. In the current study, most students were the judging type. Nursing educators need to provide clear structure, such as using syllabi and providing grading criteria. For the perceiving type of students, learning options that match their style could include the use of individual study plans. McCaulley (1981) indicated that the health field attracts judging and feeling types. They were more equally divided in terms of E/I and N/S dimensions. However, each type of individual could have an opportunity to enter the nursing profession. Conclusion Research states that a better understanding of learning styles can be beneficial to both teachers and students (Li et al., 2011; Zhang & Lambert, 2008). Because nursing is a discipline in which clinical experience is such an important component, it is possible to increase the types of classroom activities that better match the learning style of the practical learner. Despite having a preferred learning style, individuals should be encouraged to practice new ways of learning, as the most successful learner processes information in many alternative ways (Berings, Poell, & Simons, 2005). Using a variety of teaching strategies will help to create a match with the learning style of most students and thus increase learning outcomes (Young & Diekelmann, 2002). Further research is recommended to extend this study in the field of nursing. Educators can appreciate the needs and strengths of various types while understanding type differences by using the MBTI to develop different teaching methods to meet the needs of different types of students. In classroom and clinical learning, nursing faculty can use the MBTI to create a climate where differing types and attitudes toward learning are seen as interesting and valuable in order to avoid challenging or problematic learning situations. Consequently, learners and educators can benefit by recognizing the different types in order to reach the highest level of academic performance and promote nursing education.
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Learning styles and academic performance Acknowledgments Sincere appreciation is due to the National Science Council for sponsoring this study (Award No. NSC 102-2511-S-255-008). To our colleagues and students of the Chang-Gung University of Science and Technology in Taiwan, the authors greatly appreciate their assistance and participation. Conflict of interest statement The authors declare that they have no conflict if interests. References
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literacy course. International Journal of Educational Telecommunications, 7(1), 57–71. Chou, H., & Wang, T. (2000). The influence learning style and training method on self-efficacy and learning performance in WWW homepage design training. International Journal of Information Management, 20, 455–472. Curry, L. (1987). Integrating concepts of cognitive or learning styles: A review with attention to psychometric standards. Ottawa, ON: Canadian College of Health Services Executives. Dart, B. C., Burnett, P. C., Purdie, N., Boulton-Lewis, G., Campbell, J., & Smith, D. (2000). Students’ conceptions of learning, the classroom environment, and approaches to learning. The Journal of Educational Research, 93(4), 262–270. Demirbas, O. O., & Demirkan, H. (2007). Learning styles of design students and the relationship of academic performance and gender in design education. Learning and Instruction, 17, 345–359. Duff, V., Johnston, N., & Laschinger, H. (1992). Learning styles of Chinese nursing faculty and career choice preferences. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 17, 229–233. Dunn, R. (1993). Learning styles of the multiculturally diverse. Emergency Librarian, 20(4), 24–32. Dunn, R., & Dunn, K. (1999). The complete guide to the learning styles inservice system. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon. Gu, X. Y., & Hu, S. (2012). MBTI: New development and application. Advances in Psychological Science, 20(10), 1700–1708. Hickcox, L. K. (1995). Learning styles: A survey of adult learning styles inventory models. In R. R. Sims & S. J. Sims (Eds.), The importance of learning styles: Understanding the implications of learning, course design, and education (pp. 25–47). Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Hsu, C. H. C. (1999). Learning styles of hospitality students: Nature or nurture? Hospitality Management, 18, 17–30. Jung, C. G. (1921/1971). Psychological types. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Kahn, J. H., Nauta, M. M., Gailbreath, R. D., Tipps, J., & Chartrand, J. M. (2002). The utility of career and personality assessment in predicting academic progress. Journal of Career Assessment, 10(1), 3–23. Kalsbeek, D. (1986). Linking learning style theory with retention research. Paper presented at the Annual Forum of AIR TRAILS Project, Orlando, FL. Kolb, D. A. (1985). Learning style inventory: Self-scoring inventory and interpretation booklet (2nd ed.). Boston, MA: McBer.
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Li, Y. S. (2004). Assessment of nursing college students’ learning styles in Taiwan using the Myers-Briggs type indicator (doctoral dissertation, University of Southern California, 2003). Dissertation Abstracts International, 64, 4384. Li, Y. S. (2005). Learning style associated with previous nursing education among Taiwanese nursing college students. Journal of Chang Gung Institute of Technology, 4, 47–68. Li, Y. S., Chen, H. M., Yang, B. H., & Liu, C. F. (2011). An exploratory study of the relationship between age and learning styles among students in different nursing programs in Taiwan. Nurse Education Today, 31(1), 18–23. Li, Y. S., Chen, P. S., & Tsai, S. J. (2008). A comparison of the learning styles among different nursing programs in Taiwan: Implications for nursing education. Nurse Education Today, 28(1), 70–76. Mamchur, C. M. (1996). A teacher’s guide to cognitive type theory and learning style. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. McAllister, M. (2010). Solution focused nursing: A fitting model for mental health nurses working in a public health paradigm. Contemporary Nurse, 34(2), 149–157. doi: 10.5172/conu.2010.34.2.149 McCaulley, M. H. (1978). The Myers-Briggs type indicator and the teaching-learning process. Paper presented at the Symposium of American Educational Research Association, Chicago, IL. McCaulley, M. H. (1981). Application of the MyersBriggs type indicator to medicine and other health profession (monograph I) (Final Report). Gainesville, FL: American Medical Students Association Foundation, Inc., Center for Applications of Psychological Type (ERIC Document No. ED 211596). Miao, D., Huangfu, E., Rosina, C. C., & Ren, J. (2000). The validity analysis of the Chinese version MBTI. Acta Psychologica Sinica, 32(3), 324–331. Murthy, K. S., O’Neill, P. A., & Byrne, G. J. (2013). The influence of learning styles and personality profiles on undergraduate medical students’ clinical performance. Medical Teacher, 35(7), 608–609. Myers, I. B. (1962). Manual: The Myers-Briggs type indicator. Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service. Myers, I. B., McCaulley, M. H., Quenk, N. L., & Hammer, A. L. (1998). MBTI manual: A guide to the development and use of the Myers-Briggs type indicator (3rd ed.). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press. Neral, S. M. (1989). Determining whether a predictive relationship exists between noncognitive characteristics and academic achievement levels of freshman medical students (doctoral dissertation, Mississippi State University, 1989). Dissertation Abstracts International, 50/04-A, 906.
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Pollard, C. K. (1988). The relationship of GPA to personality factors of students as measured by the MBTI and the 16PF (doctoral dissertation, Baylor University, 1988). Dissertation Abstracts International, 49/10-A, 3006. Provost, J., & Anchors, S. (1987). Applications of the Myers-Briggs type indicator in higher education. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press. Quenk, N. L. (2000). Essentials of Myers-Briggs type indicator assessment. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Rushton, S., Morgan, J., & Richard, M. (2007). Teacher’s Myers-Briggs personality profiles: Identifying effective teacher personality traits. Teaching and Teacher Education, 23, 432–441. Salter, D. W., Evans, N. J., & Forney, D. S. (2006). A longitudinal study of learning style preferences on the Myers-Briggs type indicator and learning style inventory. Journal of College Student Development, 47(2), 173–184. Savvas, M., El-Kot, G., & Sadler-Smith, E. (2001). Comparative study of cognitive styles in Egypt, Greece, Hong Kong and the UK. International Journal of Training and Development, 5(1), 64–73. Schurr, K. T., & Ruble, V. E. (1986). The Myers-Briggs type indicator and first-year college achievement: A look beyond aptitude test results. Journal of Psychological Type, 12, 25–37. Sirin, A., & Guzel, A. (2006). The relationship between learning styles and problem solving skills among college students. Educational Sciences: Theory and Practice, 6(1), 255–264. Snelgrove, S., & Slater, J. (2003). Approaches to learning: Psychometric testing of a study process questionnaire. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 43(5), 496–505. Stellwagen, J. B. (2001). A challenge to the learning style advocates. The Clearning House, 74(5), 265–268. Sun, S. M., & Ho, M. Y. (2007). The relationship of baccalaureate nursing students’ learning styles and academic scores. Journal of Meiho Institute of Technology, 26(1), 101–116. Tharp, G. D. (1992). Relationship between personality type and achievement in an undergraduate physiology course. American Journal of Physiology, 262, 1–3. Tinto, V. (2012). Leaving college: Rethinking the causes and cures of student attrition (2nd ed.). Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. Wahl. S. C. (1992). The learning styles of registered nurse baccalaureate students based on the Myers-Briggs type indicator: Implication for teaching. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, San Jose State University, California. Ware, R., & Yokomoto, C. (1985). Perceived accuracy of Myers-Briggs type indicator descriptors using Keirsey profiles. Journal of Psychological Type, 10, 27–31. © eContent Management Pty Ltd
Learning styles and academic performance Wheeler, P. (2001). The Myers-Briggs type indicator and applications to accounting education and research. Issues in Accounting Education, 16(1), 125–150. Woodruff, R. G. V. & Clarke, F. M. (1996). Understanding the academic needs of minority students at the University of Hawaii, Manoa campus. Proceedings of Psychological Type and Culture – East and West: A Multicultural Research Symposium. Gainesville, FL: Center for Applications of Psychological Type.
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Young, P., & Diekelmann, N. (2002). Learning to lecture: Exploring the skills, strategies, and practices of new teacher in nursing education. Journal of Nursing Education, 41(9), 405–412. Zhang, H., & Lambert, V. (2008). Critical thinking dispositions and learning styles of baccalaureate nursing students from China. Nursing and Health Sciences, 10(3), 175–181. Received 24 October 2013
Accepted 16 October 2014
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An exploratory study of the relationship between learning styles and academic performance among students in different nursing programs Yuh-Shiow Li*, Wen-Pin Yu+, Chin-Fang Liu*, Sue-Heui Shieh* and Bao-Huan Yang* *Department of Nursing, Chang Gung University of Science and Technology, Kweishan, Taoyuan, Taiwan; +Department of Nursing, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taoyuan, Taiwan
Abstract: Background: Learning style is a major consideration in planning for effective and efficient instruction
and learning. Learning style has been shown to influence academic performance in the previous research. Little is known about Taiwanese students’ learning styles, particularly in the field of nursing education. Aim: This purpose of this study was to identify the relationship between learning styles and academic performance among nursing students in a 5-year associate degree of nursing (ADN) program and a 2-year bachelor of science in nursing (BSN) program in Taiwan. Methods/Design: This study employed a descriptive and exploratory design. The Chinese version of the Myers–Briggs type indicator Form M was an instrument. Data such as grade point average were obtained from the Office of Academic Affairs and the Registrar computerized records. Descriptive statistics, one-way analysis of variance and chi-square statistical analysis were used to explore the relationship between academic performance and learning style in Taiwanese nursing students. Results/Findings: The study sample included 285 nursing students: 96 students in a 2-year BSN program, and 189 students in a 5-year ADN program. Two common learning styles were found: Introversion, sensing, thinking, and judging; and introversion, sensing, feeling, and judging. A sensing–judging pair was identified in 43.3% of the participants. Academic performance was significantly related to learning style (p < 0.05, df = 15). Conclusion: The results of this study can help educators devise classroom and clinical instructional strategies that respond to individual needs in order to maximize academic performance and enhance student success. A large sample is recommended for further research. Understanding the learning style preferences of students can enhance learning for those who are under performing in their academic studies, thereby enhancing nursing education.
Keywords: learning styles, academic performance, associate degree of nursing, bachelor of science in nursing
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earning style is an important consideration when planning for effective and efficient instruction and learning (Childress, 2001; Li, Chen, Yang, & Liu, 2011). The best way to assist students is to create a harmonious learning environment, and to use teaching methods that are closely matched to the students’ preferred learning styles (Dart et al., 2000; McAllister, 2010). Moreover, the primary role of the teacher is to recognize potential in the students and to consciously plan for balanced personal development (Stellwagen, 2001). This leads to students being better able to manage their learning, and to teachers responding more effectively to individual student needs. Learning is a dynamic process; it is the product of student and teacher activity within a learning environment (Bankert & Kozel, 2005). In Taiwan, the dominant teaching style is lecturing (Chen, 2004). Because there is one dominant teaching style, many students might lack interest
or motivation to learn. Little, if any, research has been conducted to investigate the learning styles of Taiwanese nursing students (Chen & Lee, 2000; Li, 2004; Sun & Ho, 2007). The purpose of this study was to explore the relationship between learning style and academic performance in Taiwanese nursing students enrolled in two nursing programs: A 5-year associate degree of nursing (ADN) program, and a 2-year bachelor of science in nursing (BSN) program. Understanding this relationship will help devise effective instructional strategies that promote academic performance and enhance nursing education. Literature review Definition of learning styles Researchers claim that ‘studies classify different learning types and/or styles in different ways, their aims and approaches are similar’ (Demirbas & Demirkan, 2007, p. 346). ‘Learning styles’ are preferred ways of acquiring knowledge and drawing
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conclusions (Savvas, El-Kot, & Sadler-Smith, 2001). Learners have their preferred ways of perceiving, organizing and retaining information that are distinct and consistent (Chou & Wang, 2000; Hsu, 1999). Consequently, individuals favor particular methods of interacting with, taking in, and processing stimuli and information when they learn (Sirin & Guzel, 2006). Nursing education system in Taiwan There are three popular paths to enter the nursing profession in Taiwan. One path is to enter a university in order to receive a BSN degree after graduating. Another is to receive an associate degree after completing a 5-year ADN program. The final path is to receive a BSN degree after completing a 2-year BSN program; students who do this have previous nursing education (an ADN degree) before entering the 2-year BSN program. Figure 1 describes the various entrance pathways for becoming a nurse in Taiwan. Learning styles and the Myers–Briggs type indicator There are numerous models of learning styles and a variety of measurement instruments that can assess learning. Curry’s (1987) model has three levels, depicted as concentric circles: Instructional preference style at the outer level, information processing style at the middle level, and cognitive personality style at the inner core (Figure 2). Instructional preference is the most observable style, but least stable, because it interacts directly with elements of the physical learning environment, such as light and temperature (Hickcox, 1995); an appropriate measurement instrument is the Learning Preferences Inventory (Dunn & Dunn, 1999). The information processing level represents the ways in which an individual prefers to take in information (Hickcox, 1995), and can be assessed using Kolb’s (1985) Learning Style Inventory. The cognitive personality aspect is the most stable level of Curry’s model, as it interacts less directly with the environment and is thus more appropriate for predicting behavior; it can be assessed using the Myers–Briggs type indicator (MBTI) personality test (Myers, McCaulley, Quenk, & Hammer, 1998). Cognitive personality 230
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Graduate School Doctoral Program (4-8 years) Master Program (2-4 years)
University and College (BSN Degree) Baccalaureate Program (4 years)
Post Junior College Program (2 years)
Poly Technology College (BSN Degree) Post Junior Baccalaureate College Program Program (4 years) (2 years)
(ADN Degree) Senior High School (3 years)
Junior College (5 years)
Junior High School (3 years)
Elementary School (6 years)
Figure 1: Nursing education system in Taiwan
models measure pervasive and holistic dimensions of personality, which can be assessed by individuals’ learning styles. Relationships between learning styles and the MBTI are revealed in Curry’s model. The MBTI consists of four scales of paired opposites or dichotomies: extraversion/introversion (E/I), sensing/intuition (S/N), thinking/feeling (T/F), and judging/perceiving (J/P). Sixteen possible personality types can be derived through a combination of these four pairs. The MBTI is designed to identify individual differences that are in keeping with Jungian theory. Carl Jung first developed the idea of psychological types in 1921 (Jung, 1921/1971). He characterized personality in terms of ‘function–attitudes,’ reflecting combinations of a pair of psychological attitudes (E/I),
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Learning styles and academic performance
Instructional Preference
Information Processing
Cognitive Personality
Figure 2: Curry’s model of learning styles
and two pairs of psychological functions (S/N and T/F). The S/N pair concerns the manner in which incoming information is perceived, while the T/F pair concerns how action decisions are made on the basis of the obtained information. Myers and Briggs added a dichotomous pair of attitudes to Jung’s mental functions: Judging and perceiving. The J/P dichotomy concerns attitudes toward dealing with the outer world. The MBTI has been used extensively in a variety of settings to help explain individual differences (Salter, Evans, & Forney, 2006). Learning styles and academic performance Researchers support that there is a significant relationship between academic performance and the psychological preferences of medical students (Bitran, Lafuente, Zúñiga, Viviani, & Mena, 2004). The findings show that the interest and ability to communicate with people and the concern for harmony in male students, and the tendency to function in a systematic and orderly way in female students, are related to high academic performance in this study. Also, Myers et al. (1998) stated that a number of patterns have been identified that relate personality types to academic performance. Judging types have higher average grades and a higher IQ, whereas perceiving types have lower grades than expected for their IQ level.
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This seems to indicate that the need for closure and an organized approach to external events helps achieve higher grades. Furthermore, it could be that traditional testing and education systems favor the judging personality type. In addition, judging tends to be the predominant personality type of teachers. The relationship between the J/P attitude pair and academic performance seems to be the same whether dealing with college freshmen (Pollard, 1988), undergraduates in general (Woodruff & Clarke, 1996), or first-year medical students (Neral, 1989). Regarding the S/N function pair, intuitive personality types consistently have higher mean IQ scores than sensing types. The three aspects of personality that appear to contribute most to academic success and IQ are introversion, intuition and judging. Moreover, researchers state that both education and nursing students attract a proportionately higher number of SJ types than other types (Li, 2005; Li, Chen, & Tsai, 2008). People with SJ types persist in their studies to achieve graduation, do well professionally and populate their professions of choice (Tharp, 1992). In addition, ‘learning styles might influence clinical performance and be open to remediation (Murthy, O’Neill, & Byrne, 2013, p. 608).’ Brunt and Kopp (2007) indicate that using a learning style approach can empower staff development to create an appropriate environment for successful staff learning to assist in providing quality care while increasing retention. According to Kalsbeek (1986), research supports Myers and McCaulley’s findings that the sensing–intuitive scale is most strongly related to aptitude. Kalsbeek (1986) indicated that the mean SAT score for a concrete active learner (representing an extroverted sensing personality type) was 932, which is much lower than the 1,110 scored by the abstract reflective learner (representing an introverted–intuitive personality type). In addition, there is a significant relationship between institutional culture and the student. Tinto (2012) indicated that persistence in education is a function of a match between individuals, their motivation and academic ability and the institution’s academic and social characteristics, stating that the person–environment fit involves both social and academic integration. He wrote that
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‘To a very real degree, our failure to make significant improvement in learning and retention over the past several decades reflects the regrettable fact that students’ experience has not led students to become actively involved in learning (Tinto, 2012, p. 211).’ Similarly, it is thought that the better the fit between the student and the academic climate the better the chances for academic success (Busato, Prins, Elshout, & Hamaker, 2000). An institution that focuses on assessing students using academic counseling to meet individual student needs, and placing priority on the teaching–learning process, will have a greater tendency to provide a better student–institution fit, with one benefit of this being increased retention (Busato et al., 2000). Learning styles and non-western populations The MBTI has been used by Myers (1962) and McCaulley (1978) to predict success for health science professional nursing students. Using 7,226 nursing students in the United States, the sample included 70 licensed practical nurses, 566 nursing graduate students, 2,074 baccalaureate nursing students, 3,171 diploma nursing students and 1,345 2-year nursing college students. McCaulley (1978) described a sample grouping consisting of 58% extroverted, 60% sensing, 74% feeling, and 61% judging types. The most common types in the nursing student sample were extroverted, sensing, feeling, and judging (ESFJ), introverted, sensing, feeling, and judging (ISFJ), and extroverted, intuitive, feeling, and perceiving (ENFP). The Tracking Retention and Academic Integration by Learning Style project conducted at St. Louis University (Provost & Anchors, 1987) found that the personality types of nursing students are most frequently ENFP (19.5%), ESFJ (13.4%) and ESFP (13.4%). These findings support the idea that college freshmen who are nursing majors are more extroverted, sensing, feeling and judging than non-nursing majors. Learning is a complex multi-dimensional process (Snelgrove & Slater, 2003), with styles that appear to differ across cultures. For example, Chinese-Americans were found to be more able to handle their assignments independently, and to prefer a quiet environment and formal structure 232
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for learning. In contrast, African-Americans preferred to work with peers rather than by themselves, and tended to prefer sound, music and informal seating while learning (Dunn, 1993). Additionally, Duff, Johnston, and Laschinger (1992) used Kolb’s Learning Style Inventory and found that the learning styles within nursing faculties tended to be more concrete than abstract. The most common learning style was found to be ‘diverger’ (67.6%), which represents someone who prefers concrete and people-oriented learning experiences and reflective observation. Concrete learning styles appear to be more common in the field of nursing. Methods This study employed a descriptive and exploratory design. Nursing students were asked to complete Form M from the Chinese version of the MBTI, for which there were 93 forced-choice items. The participants were also asked to complete a onepage demographic sheet. Further data, including grade point average (GPA), were obtained from the Office of Academic Affairs and the Registrar computerized records. Students were not identified individually. Furthermore, the nursing students participated in the study voluntarily and anonymously. The researchers explained the MBTI instrument before the participants completed the questionnaires. Each subject signed an informed-consent form before voluntarily participating in the study. For the protection of the subjects’ human rights, the study was first approved by the University’s Institutional Review Board as being free of rights violations. Sample The sample of nursing participants was selected by random cluster sampling of a class section of approximately 50 students from each grade level in an institute located in the north of Taiwan. A total of 285 female nursing students participated in the study; 189 (47/270 first-year students, 47/440 second-year students, 48/530 third-year students, and 47/540 fourth-year students) in the 5-year ADN program, and 96 (46/285 first-year students and 48/280 second-year students) in the 2-year BSN program. The participation rate
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Learning styles and academic performance for completed questionnaires was 97%. Nursing students in grade five were not included in the study because at the time of data collection they were away from the school in clinical practice and preparing for their licensure exams. Instrumentation The MBTI was used as the instrument in this study for measuring students’ learning styles. The most current MBTI form, Form M contains 93 forced-choice items, and was published in English in 1998. The traditional Chinese version (Form M) was available in 2003. Participants completed the MBTI questionnaire in 15–25 minutes. The traditional Chinese translation of Form M of the MBTI was administered by qualified researchers in adherence to established guidelines. In addition, participants were asked to complete a onepage demographic survey to complement the MBTI. The MBTI was scored by the researchers who administered the instrument. Validity and reliability The validity of an instrument indicates how well the purpose of measurement is met. With Form M, the MBTI type was ranked most accurate by 58–78% of the participants (Wheeler, 2001). Furthermore, researchers reported that 62% of their subjects indicated the MBTI type was similar to the description stated in their study (Ware & Yokomoto, 1985). A confirmatory factor analysis of Form M using a national sample (N = 3,036) produced a four-factor model with a 0.95 adjusted goodness-of-fit (Myers et al., 1998). Researchers agreed that the Chinese version of the MBTI has high content validity, criterion referent validity and construct validity (Gu & Hu, 2012; Miao, Huangfu, Rosina, & Ren, 2000). The reliability of Form M ranged from 0.89 to 0.94 in a national sample of 3,036 participants (Myers et al., 1998), while in another national sample, of 2,859 participants, the coefficient alpha ranged from 0.91 to 0.92 (Quenk, 2000). Test–retest reliability, an estimate of how stable a characteristic is over time, is another common method for estimating reliability; it was found for Form M to range from 0.87 to 0.93 in a sample
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of 258 at the Public Utilities Company (Quenk, 2000). Thus, research indicates that the internal consistency of the four MBTI scales is high, and that the test–retest reliability of the MBTI shows consistency over time (Capraro & Capraro, 2002). Miao et al. (2000) also indicate that the test–retest reliability of the Chinese sample ranged from 0.54 to 0.73 in a sample of 2,123 for the four dimensions after 8 weeks. Consequently, the reliability of the Chinese version of the MBTI is appropriate. Overall, the MBTI is a highly reliable and valid instrument (Rushton, Morgan, & Richard, 2007). Curry (1987) ranked the MBTI with a strong rating for reliability and a good rating for validity. Previous research has established that the MBTI is a reliable and valid instrument in multiple cultures (Myers et al., 1998). The Chinese scholars also suggest that a major reason for the popularity of the MBTI is its relevance in many diverse areas, including education, career development, organizational behavior, psychotherapy with individuals, and in multicultural settings (Chen & Miao, 2007). Ethical considerations All information disclosed in the demographics and the MBTI questionnaires was kept anonymous. Participants were informed as to the purpose of the study. Student participation was anonymous and voluntary. Permission to conduct the study was granted by the president of the institute. Data analysis The MBTI questionnaires were scored by the researchers using the official answer key. Data were analyzed with an IBM-PC using the Statistical Package for the Social Science (SPSS 17.0). Demographic data were presented to describe the sample, using frequencies, percentages, ranges, means, standard deviations and modes. An alpha level of 0.05 was used. Descriptive statistics, one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and chi-square statistical analysis were used to explore the relationship between academic performance and learning style in Taiwanese nursing students.
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Results The ANOVA revealed a significant relationship between academic performance and learning style (p = 0.001, df = 15). Table 1 compares academic performance and MBTI preferences, and shows that nursing students with introvert, sensing, thinking and judging preferences had better scores than those with extrovert, intuitive, feeling, and perceiving preferences on the cumulative averages. Overall, nursing participants with introvert, sensing, thinking and judging (ISTJ) preferences had better academic performance in this study. Pairs and temperaments are usually used in MBTI studies to demonstrate how the combinations of any 2 letters among 16 types are manifested by the participants. As shown in Table 2, the predominant pairs and temperaments of the Taiwanese female nursing students were SJ (43.3%), IS (36.8%) IJ (34.7%), TJ (33.2%), and ST (32.1%). Less frequent were IN (16.2%), NJ (17.0%), and SP (17.7%). Table 3 presents the distribution of academic performance among different MBTI personality types. Results revealed that the most common learning styles were introversion, sensing, thinking, and judging (ISTJ) and ISFJ among Taiwanese nursing students. Table 3 demonstrates that the learning style of 14.0% (N = 40) of all participants was ISTJ and the learning style of
11.6% (N = 33) of all participants was ISFJ. As can be seen in Table 1, chi-square analyses revealed significant relationships between academic performance and the subscales N/S, T/F, and J/P (p = 0.044, p = 0.042, and p = 0.001, respectively). The findings also showed that there was a fairly significant difference between academic performance and the J/P dimension, though no statistically significant relationship between academic performance and the E/I dimension.
Table 1: Participating students’ academic performance and MBTI types Type
N
%
Mean
SD
GPA Minimum Maximum
E I
130 147
46.9 76.90 7.06 53.1 77.53 7.12
53.38 56.42
88.68 89.66
S N
169 108
61.0 77.92 7.01 39.0 76.16 7.11
53.38 56.45
89.66 88.92
T F
145 132
52.3 77.75 7.06 47.7 76.68 7.10
53.38 56.45
88.92 89.66
J* P*
167 110
60.3 78.61 6.41 39.7 75.14 7.58
62.10 53.38
89.66 88.68
N = 285; missing data included eight participants who did not finish the MBTI questionnaire completely. *There was a significant difference between academic performance and J/P dimension (p = 0.001). The others were no statistically significant differences (p > 0.05).
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Discussion The findings of the current study are in agreement with those of previous research, with judging personality types tending to obtain higher academic performances than perceiving types (Myers et al., 1998). The findings support Schurr Table 2: Pairs and temperaments of the participating nursing students
Type
N
%
IJ IP EP EJ
96 51 59 71
34.7 18.4 21.3 25.6
ST SF NF NT
89 80 52 56
32.1 28.9 18.8 20.2
SJ SP NP NJ
120 49 61 47
43.3 17.7 22.0 17.0
TJ TP FP FJ
92 53 57 75
33.2 19.1 20.6 27.1
IN EN IS ES
45 63 102 67
16.2 22.7 36.8 24.2
ET EF IF IT
66 64 68 79
23.8 23.1 24.5 28.5
Data in bold represents the highest percentage among the participating students.
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Learning styles and academic performance Table 3: Distribution of academic performance among different MBTI types Type
N
ENFJ 11 ENFP 21 ENTJ 13 ENTP 18 ESFJ 21 ESFP 11 ESTJ 26 ESTP 9 INFJ 10 INFP 10 INTJ 13 INTP 12 ISFJ 33 ISFP 15 ISTJ 40 ISTP 14 Missing 8 Total 285
Mean
SD
GPA Minimum
Maximum
77.59 7.52 73.63 6.80 75.51 6.33 76.36 6.41 79.37 6.05 74.47 5.43 80.64 5.28 72.83 11.09 77.53 8.22 74.41 9.17 80.60 4.99 75.24 6.80 77.45 6.75 77.12 7.06 78.79 6.28 76.05 8.94
65.27 62.31 66.92 67.18 65.55 68.20 72.23 53.38 62.59 56.45 72.56 61.27 62.10 64.06 65.78 56.42
87.78 86.64 88.06 88.68 88.29 86.05 88.22 88.20 87.55 86.84 88.92 86.42 89.66 87.82 88.80 88.34
77.24
53.38
89.66
7.09
Bold represents the highest number among the participating students.
and Ruble’s (1986) finding that the J/P dimension is a strong predictor of college performance. In this study, there was a significant relationship ( p = 0.001) between academic performance and the J/P dimension. This relationship may involve individuals with a judging type being more interested in getting decisions made, and those with a perceiving type tending to keep looking for additional information and alternatives in the process of making a decision. Judging types prefer structure and closure, which are conducive to commitment to academic goals. Overall, the results appear to indicate that nursing programs attract students who are likely to have thinking and judging personality types. Individuals with similar interests tend to gravitate toward certain professions, and although it is true that nursing programs attract students of all psychological types, certain types are clearly more likely to be selected into nursing programs worldwide. Research suggests that the majority of nursing students tend to have the sensing preference (Provost & Anchors, 1987; Wahl,
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1992). These students may perform well in nursing, although previous studies have found that intuitive individuals perform better academically than sensing individuals (Kalsbeek, 1986; Myers et al., 1998). Furthermore, the preference of T/F predicts academic performance; it is likely that the critical thinking skill involves objectivity over personal values. As a result, individuals with a thinking preference would process information better than individuals with a feeling preference (Kahn, Nauta, Gailbreath, Tipps, & Chartrand, 2002). Therefore, it is not surprising that the current study found nursing students with thinking and judging preferences to perform well academically. Whereas previous research indicated that the intuitive preference facilitates success in science more so than the sensing preference (Schurr & Ruble, 1986), the reverse was found in the current study. This may be because the needs of the sensing types for practical and realityoriented courses are met by nursing programs. Moreover, when the sensing preference is combined with certain others it seems to enhance academic achievement in nursing. From Tharp’s (1992) study, the ranking for the top five was SJ > ST > IN > IJ > IS, when total points are examined for combinations of two MBTI preferences. Therefore, sensing has a positive influence on achievement when combined with judging, thinking, or intuition. In addition, one possible explanation is the high proportion of participants with a sensing type (N = 169, 61.0% in the total sample, see Table 1), which may be a factor affecting the results of the current study. Research showed that 58% of nursing students in the United States were of the extroverted type, since the American culture emphasized extraversion in the group norm (McCaulley, 1981). In contrast, researchers found the model type for the Chinese group was ISTJ (Li et al., 2008, 2011). Therefore, culture may be a crucial aspect that influences how people learn. Studies can be done to compare nursing students in associate nursing programs and baccalaureate nursing programs in Taiwan and the United Stated for learning style differences. In this study, nursing students tended toward the sensing–judging
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combination, as did nursing students in the United States. Implications for nursing education In the current study, a preference for the sensing function indicates that Taiwanese nursing students typically perceive information through immediate experience and favor facts, observation, and practical learning. The sensing type of student tends to use five senses when learning, and prefers practical application and a pragmatic style. Nursing faculties need to be aware of this preference for direct experience and ‘handson’ learning. Teaching step-by-step is a useful method to assist learning. Furthermore, students who prefer the sensing type of learning styles are more persistent in nursing programs (Li et al., 2008; McCaulley, 1978; Provost & Anchors, 1987) and are more likely to remain in nursing programs. In other words, those students have a lower attrition rate in nursing programs. Instructors need to design programs in which the material is broken down into small sections so that students have plenty of time for observation and practice (Mamchur, 1996). The information presented should be relevant and have a practical purpose to aid students’ persistence in their nursing studies. While the current study found a majority of nursing students to be the sensing type of learners (N = 169, 61.0%), a significant proportion had a preference for the intuitive dimension (N = 108, 39.0%). Nursing educators need to be aware that both preferences are present within classroom and laboratory settings. The intuitive learner prefers exploring ideas, patterns and theory, and learns best by creative brainstorming and reflection. Nursing educators need to design a variety of teaching strategies that provide intuitive students with plenty of opportunities to invent, to create and to work independently (Mamchur, 1996). In matters of curriculum, nursing faculty members need to keep in mind that students with a thinking type tend to like logical rules. The thinking learners need a sense of mastery to know things deeply in order to learn in an orderly fashion. On the other hand, learners with a feeling preference rely primarily on personal or social 236
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values when making a decision, and nursing educators need to offer support and approval in facilitating the learning of these individuals. In the current study, most students were the judging type. Nursing educators need to provide clear structure, such as using syllabi and providing grading criteria. For the perceiving type of students, learning options that match their style could include the use of individual study plans. McCaulley (1981) indicated that the health field attracts judging and feeling types. They were more equally divided in terms of E/I and N/S dimensions. However, each type of individual could have an opportunity to enter the nursing profession. Conclusion Research states that a better understanding of learning styles can be beneficial to both teachers and students (Li et al., 2011; Zhang & Lambert, 2008). Because nursing is a discipline in which clinical experience is such an important component, it is possible to increase the types of classroom activities that better match the learning style of the practical learner. Despite having a preferred learning style, individuals should be encouraged to practice new ways of learning, as the most successful learner processes information in many alternative ways (Berings, Poell, & Simons, 2005). Using a variety of teaching strategies will help to create a match with the learning style of most students and thus increase learning outcomes (Young & Diekelmann, 2002). Further research is recommended to extend this study in the field of nursing. Educators can appreciate the needs and strengths of various types while understanding type differences by using the MBTI to develop different teaching methods to meet the needs of different types of students. In classroom and clinical learning, nursing faculty can use the MBTI to create a climate where differing types and attitudes toward learning are seen as interesting and valuable in order to avoid challenging or problematic learning situations. Consequently, learners and educators can benefit by recognizing the different types in order to reach the highest level of academic performance and promote nursing education.
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Learning styles and academic performance Acknowledgments Sincere appreciation is due to the National Science Council for sponsoring this study (Award No. NSC 102-2511-S-255-008). To our colleagues and students of the Chang-Gung University of Science and Technology in Taiwan, the authors greatly appreciate their assistance and participation. Conflict of interest statement The authors declare that they have no conflict if interests. References
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Accepted 16 October 2014
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