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An Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used in sacred groves of Kumaon Himalaya, Uttarakhand, India Harsh Singh, Tariq Husain, Priyanka Agnihotri, P.C. Pande, Sayyada Khatoon

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Journal of Ethnopharmacology

Received date: 29 October 2013 Revised date: 28 February 2014 Accepted date: 11 March 2014 Cite this article as: Harsh Singh, Tariq Husain, Priyanka Agnihotri, P.C. Pande, Sayyada Khatoon, An Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used in sacred groves of Kumaon Himalaya, Uttarakhand, India, Journal of Ethnopharmacology, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2014.03.026 This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript. The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting galley proof before it is published in its final citable form. Please note that during the production process errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain.

An Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used in sacred groves of Kumaon Himalaya, Uttarakhand, India Harsh Singh**1, Tariq Husain1, Priyanka Agnihotri1, P.C. Pande2 and Sayyada Khatoon*3 1. Plant Diversity, Systematics and Herbarium Division CSIR-National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh (INDIA) 2. Department of Botany, D.S.B. Campus, Kumaun University, Uttarakhand (INDIA) 3. Pharmacognosy and Ethnopharmacology Division CSIR-National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh (INDIA) *Author for correspondence: Senior Scientist, Pharmacognosy and Ethnopharmacology Division, CSIR-National Botanical Research Institute, Rana Pratap Marg, Lucknow 226 001, India. Tel.: +91 522 2297817, Fax: +91 522 2205836, 2205839 Email: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] OR ** Author for another correspondence: CSIR-Young Scientist, Plant Diversity, Systematics and Herbarium Division, CSIR-National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow 226 001, Uttar Pradesh (INDIA) Email: [email protected]

Abstract Ethnopharmacological relevance: International organisations recognize the importance of sacred groves and place them into the context of sustainable development and also emphasize to conserve biodiversity through protection of sacred groves and sties. The significance of medicinal plants from Himalayan region is well known to the world. Therefore, present study was conducted in identified sacred groves of Kumaon Himalaya to investigate and document the utilization of medicinal plants by various local communities and tribal people. Materials and methods: The study was conducted during 2008-2011 in four seasons of the year. Information was collected from 70 locals from different sacred groves by using free listing interviews with randomly selected informants and semi-structured questionnaires;

plants specimens were collected, identified and deposited at the CSIR-NBRI (LWG), Lucknow, India. Results: Seven sacred groves viz., Dhwaj, Haat Kali, Hokra, Malay Nath, Nakuleshwar, Narayan Swami Ashram and Patal Bhuvneshwar were identified from the Pithoragarh district of Kumaon Himalaya. 89 medicinal plants belonging to 52 families and 77 genera of which, 2 are lichens, 4 are pteridophytes, 3 are gymnosperms and remaining 80 plant species are angiosperms. 6 plant species are reported with new therapeutic uses for the first time in this paper. Highest informant’s consensus factor value was found in liver disorder (0.55) and least by body pains (0.23). 55 ethnomedicinal plants are showing 100% fidelity level against various diseases. Conclusion: Sacred groves in Kumaon region of Indian Himalaya are rich sources and best repository of ethno-medicinally important plants with many rare, endangered and threatened species. It is an excellent example of unique traditional way of in situ conservation of different plant species. Keywords Kumaon Himalaya; Sacred grove; Ethnobotany; Traditional knowledge; Conservation

1.

Introduction

The herbal medicines serve the health needs of about 80% of the world’s population, especially for millions of people in the rural areas of developing countries (WHO, 2001). The usage of medicinal plants for primary health care needs by millions of people in developing world is still occupying a prominent position (WHO, 2002). Different types of ailments are prevalent in different cultural groups and ethnic communities spread all over the world (Leslie and Young, 1992). Due to the close association with nature and its various components, the tribal and local communities have effectively developed their traditional knowledge system which incorporates the use of locally available plants and its products for

treatment of various ailments (Kala, 2005). The biodiversity of Indian Himalayas has been well known as an important source of traditional medicines since million of years and has been explored by people from across the world. In fact, the association of religion with ecosystem management is interwoven in the symbiotic network of the Himalayan communities (Joshi, 1992). The international organisations such as United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), Man and Biosphere (MAB) and the World Heritage Convention (WHC) clearly recognize the importance of sacred groves or sites and place them into the context of sustainable development. Therefore, the international organizations continue to play a leading role to conserve and benefit from biodiversity through protection of sacred groves and sties (UNESCO 1972; 1996). In India, it is estimated that there are between 100000-150000 sacred groves throughout the country (Malhotra et al., 2001). These groves have higher richness and regeneration of medicinal plants than reserve forests (Boraiah et al., 2003) and are repositories and nurseries of many of the local Ayurvedic, Unani, Tribal and Folk medicines which slowly entered into the modern medicines after careful screening (Bhakat and Sen, 2008). They also serve as rich repositories of biodiversity of endemic, endangered and rare species flora and fauna (Jeeva et al., 2005). Several studies have documented the role of sacred groves in protection and conservation of biodiversity all across India (Vartak et al., 1987; Bhakat and Pandit, 2003 & 2004; Bhandary and Chandrasekhar, 2003; Pandit and Bhakat, 2007). Ethnomedicinal plants of North-Eastern Himalaya and South Indian sacred groves have already been reported from Indian region (Prasad et al., 1996; Britto et al., 2005; Upadhaya et al., 2005; Khumbongmayum et al., 2005; Sukumaran and Raj, 2010). However, sacred groves of Kumaon Himalaya also have immense resource of ethnomedicinal plants and the local people depend on it for curing various diseases and ailments. The Kumaon Himalayas form an important part of the Uttarakhand district in north India. It is one of the

major centers for cultural and traditional diversity, herbal medicines and rich floristic wealth including many endemic and rare plants. The rural communities of this region are very much dependent on biological resources for their sustenance. Sacred groves in Kumaon Himalaya are rich in biodiversity and a number of such groves are present in every village or a group of few villages having own deity, often surrounded by a forest patch considered as sacred (Bisht and Ghildiyal, 2007). Earlier, reports on Nakuleshwar, Haat Kali, Malya Nath and Patal Bhuvenshwar sacred groves (Singh et al. 2010a; b; Singh 2011; Singh et al., 2011; Singh et al., 2012; Singh et al., 2013) limited their studies with conservation of biodiversity and some ethnobotanical uses. It is notable that, the sacred groves harbouring rich medicinal plant growth but scanty studies have been carried out to document these resources and their importance with respect to the local people. Keeping in view the need for highlighting the role of sacred groves as repositories of medicinal plants and their applications by the local people, the present study was conducted in the seven sacred groves with the objectives: (i) to identify unexplored sacred groves of Kumaon Himalayas; (ii) to document the traditional approaches of various indigenous and tribal people of the groves; (iii) to get the knowledge and documentation of the ethnomedicinal plants in view of the future opportunities to discover new drugs.

2.

Materials and methods

2.1.

Study area

The study was conducted in seven sacred groves of Pithoragarh district of Kumaon Himalayas in Uttarakhand state. Pithoragarh district is located between 29°35Nand80°13Eto 29.58°Nand80.22°E with a geographical area of 7,100 sq. km. It is bordered by Tibet plateau

on the north and Nepal of the east along with the Garhwal portion (Chamoli district) and Kumaon portion of Bageshwar, Almora and Champawat district. Rivers like Dauliganga, Kali

Goriganga and Ramganga are the main rivers which covers the whole district. Generally, there are four seasons in a year viz. winter, summer, rainy and spring but, winter season is for six months starting from October to March. The temperate is variable in different part of Pithoragarh district i.e. up to 0 °C in winter and reaches up to 30 ºC in summer, depends on the range of mountains. The topography ranges from 500 m to 4000 m and consists of different forest types. 1000 m-1500 m represents semi-temperate type forest. Above 1500 m to 2000 m represents sub-temperate type forest and 2000 m to 3000 m represents temperate type of forest. Mostly Quercus spp., Rhododendron spp. and Cedrus deodara are dominant species. Alpine range staring from 3000 m to 4000 m represents bugyals meadows (alpine meadows) with Betula utilis, Abies spp., Rhododendron anthopogon, R. campanulatum, Saussurea spp., Aconitum spp., etc. The district is also privileged being a pathway for the great Kailash Mansarovar pilgrimage. For the study, seven sacred groves viz., Dhwaj, Haat Kali, Hokra, Malay Nath, Nakuleshwar, Narayan Swami Ashram and Patal Bhuvneshwar have been identified from the Pithoragarh district in Kumaon Himalaya (Fig. 1) (Singh, 2011). 2.2.

Collection and deposition of ethnomedicinal plants

Critical field surveys were undertaken during 2008-2011 in all the four seasons viz., spring, summer, rainy, and winter in aforesaid sacred groves. Plant specimens were collected either in flowering or fruiting stage in triplicate. Further, specimens were processed as per routine herbarium techniques recommended by Jain and Rao (1977) and were deposited in LWG herbarium (a herbarium of CSIR-National Botanical Research Institute), Lucknow. The specimens were identified with help of different floras, monographs, revisions and other available literatures (Osmaston, 1927; Gupta, 1968; Raizada and Saxena 1978; Naithani, 1984, 1985; Gaur, 1999).

2.3.

Sacred groves and local communities

Sacred groves of Pithoragarh district, Kumaon Himalaya are commonly known as ‘Devta Than’ or simply ‘Than’. These groves are situated at different altitudinal gradients ranging from 1530 m - 2730 m and represents sub-temperate moist to temperate type of vegetation. Identified seven sacred groves are inhabitants by various local communities, which are directly or indirectly dependent on floral wealth of the groves. (1) Dhwaj sacred grove is devoted to local deity ‘Jyanti Maa’ and the local community is Kapri. (2) Haat Kali sacred grove is devoted to ‘Maa Kali’ under the customs of Rawals community. (3) Hokra sacred grove is devoted to a famous deity ‘Hokra Devi’, who is much feared goddess among the Mehra and Bisht communities in this area. No one enter and collect even a single leaf or wood from the grove without the permission or pray to this deity. (4) Malay Nath sacred grove is another grove which is devoted to ‘Malay Nath Dev” (a god for agricultural activities) and this forest patch is conserved Chupal community. (5) Narayan Swami Ashram is devoted to ‘Narayan Dev’ and is conserved by more than one tribal community such as Boxa, Bhotia, and Rajis tribe. (6) Nakuleshwar is devoted to ‘Lord Shiva’ conserved by Rajis tribe. (7) Patal Bhuvneshwar is also devoted to ‘Lord Shiva’ and inhabitant by Bhandari, Bora, Guro and Rawal communities. The altitudes, vegetation, and medicinal plants of aforesaid sacred groves are given (Table 1). 2.4.

Ethnobotanical data collection

Ethnobotanical data was collected through free listing interviews with randomly selected informants and field interviews with key informants selected after free listing (Ghorbani et al., 2011). The questionnaire was mainly focused on the ethnobotanical claims and traditional beliefs of local communities and nearby people. The interviews were conducted using the local language (Kumaoni), as the first author is a local person of the region. For the ethnomedicinal information, a total of 70 informants (55 males; 15 females) were interviewed

randomly from the various sacred groves. However, age class were into consideration to get the ration of knowledge and beliefs on ethnomedicinal plants within the age groups; 5 were from 70-75 years of age, 38 were 60-65 years of age 12 were 50-60 years of age, 10 were from 45-50 years of age and 5 were 25-45 years of age. 2.5.

Data analysis

The medicinal uses of the plants were classified into different categories following the standard chart developed by Heinrich et al. (1998). To test the homogeneity of knowledge on the use of plants in the illness categories between the populations, we used the informant consensus factor (Heinrich et al., 1998): ICF =Nur-Nt/(Nur-1), where Nur refers to the number of use reports for a particular use category and Nt refers to the number of taxa used for a particular use category by all informants. For the quantitative data analysis of ethnomedicinal plants, we used fidelity level (FL) index as described by Friedman et al., (1986) to determine the most preferred species used in the treatment of a particular ailment as more than one plant species are in treatment in the same category; FL (%) = (Np /N x 100), where Np is the number of informants citing the use of the plant for a particular illness and N is the total number of informants citing the species for any illness. 3.

Results

3.1.

Ethno-medicinal plants and uses reported by the informants

A total of 89 ethnomedicinally important plants were collected and identified belonging to 48 families and 76 genera, of which, 2 are lichens, 3 are pteridophytes, 2 are gymnosperms and remaining 82 plant species are angiosperms. In these groves, the herbs are represented by 43 species and are found to be more prominent growth form for treatment of various ailments followed by shrubs (20 species), trees (18 species), climber (6 species) and least by thallus of lichens (‘Chadilla’ or ‘Jhulla’) with 2 species (Fig. 2A). The distribution of these plants/parts in the taxonomical families is represented in Fig. 2B. The local people of the groves

recognized the plant species by the various vernacular names such as Kilmora for Berberis species; Van Haldu for Hedychium spicatum; Buras for Rhododendron arboreum, etc., (Table 2). Of the various plant parts used for the treatment of ailments, the leaves were being used maximum represented by 31.57% followed by root or rhizome, fruits, whole plant, stem bark, aerial parts, thallus of lichen, seeds, flowers and stem with 24.21, 14.73, 12.63, 7.36, 3.15, 2 2.10, 2.10, 1.05, 1.05 per cent respectively (Fig. 3). Most of the medicinal plants are common among the different sacred groves and the way of using the medicinal plants is quite similar among the different local communities of the sacred groves. 3.2.

Informant’s consensus factor and Fidelity level for therapeutic purposes

The ethno-medicinal plants were reported to be used for treating 32 different ailments which are grouped into 10 categories. The highest informant’s consensus factor (ICF) value was 0.55 for liver disorder, followed by urological (0.36), jaundice (0.33), fever (0.32), gastrological (0.29), dermatological (0.29), general (0.28) categories indicated moderate consistency of informant knowledge in the use of these medicinal plants species while the low ICF value of respiratory (0.26) and body pains (0.23) indicates the less consistency of the informants knowledge in the plants used for treatment (Table 3). The fidelity value (FL) of a plant species for a specific disease in the study area varied from 11.11% to 100%. The 100% FL is expressed by 21 plant species for dermatological disorder followed by 14, 5, 5, 5, 4, 3 and 3 for Gastrointestinal disorder, body pain, respiratory problems, urological problems, fever, jaundice, general health category respectively (Table 4). 3.3.

Rare and threatened medicinal plants

Among the 89 plant species recorded, some plants species are under the serious threat of extinction and are listed in various local and red data list. Bergenia ciliata (Haw.) Sternb. (Vulnerable), Berberis aristata DC. (Endangered), Hedychium spicatum Buch.-Ham. ex

Smith. (Vulnerable), Malaxis acuminata D. Don (Vulnerable), Valeriana jatamansi Jones (Critically Endangered), Paris pollyphylla Smith (Endangered), Thalictrum foliolosum DC. (Vulnerable), Taxus baccata L. (Critically Endangered), etc. are some of the Rare, Endangered and Threatened (RET) medicinal plants which are reported from these sacred groves. 3.4. New reports The recorded information of medicinal remedies was compared with those gathered by earlier published ethno-botanical surveys. A review of literature indicated that 6 out of the 89 plant species are reported with new therapeutic uses (Table 2). The ethno-botanical claims associated with these six species are as follows: Equisetum arvense L. (Jor-ka-tora) - It has long been used as a folklore medicine for the treatment of various conditions such as tuberculosis, as a catarrh in the kidney and bladder regions, as a homeostatic for profuse menstruation, nasal, pulmonary and gastric haemorrhages, for rheumatic diseases, gout, poorly healing wounds and ulcers, swelling, fractures, for brittle fingernails and loss of hair, for frost bite (Sandhu et al., 2010). However, the Rawal community of Haat Kali sacred grove is using this plant for the treatment of jaundice. The mode of treatment is reported as a half glass of Juice of whole plant twice a day. Geranium wallichianum D. Don ex Sweet (Bhanda/Bheel-jadhi)- The plant is reported for the treatment of ulceration, dysentery, diarrhoea, haemorrhage, gonorrhoea, leucorrhoea, toothache and diabetes (Zabta et al., 2003; Singh and Rawat, 2011). Ismail et al (2012) also reported the paste of this plant for superficial skin infections and its infusion for the treatments of diarrhoea. In Dhwaj sacred grove, Kapri community is applying one to two drops of fresh juice of this plant directly to the ear for the treatment of earache.

Lindera pulcherrima (Nees) Benth. ex Hook. (Cherry)- In Malaynath sacred grove, Chuphal community used the leaves for skin diseases. They crushed the leaves and applied the paste on the affected areas to cure the skin diseases. However, the previous information of this plant is related to the use of bark and leaves as spice, in cold, fever, and cough (Joshi et al., 2010). Quercus leucotrichophora A. Camus (Banj)- Gum of the tree is traditionally used for gonorrhoeal and digestive disorders (Pande et al., 2006). The seeds are astringent and diuretic and are used in the treatment of gonorrhoea, indigestion, diarrhoea and asthma (Chopra et al., 1986). Gum of this plant is being used as energetic by the Bhotia community of Narayan Swami Ashram sacred grove. They prepared a completely dried compound formulation by adding powdered roots of Hedychium spicatum and Malaxis acuminata with the gum and take one tablespoon of this mixture along with the milk to get energy. Rhododendron arboreum Smith (Buras)- The plant is reported as anti-diarrheal, antioxidant, anti-diabetic, hepatoprotective, anti-inflammatory and anti-nociceptive (Kumar et al., 2011Srivastava, 2012) and to cure nasal-bleeding (Uniyal et al., 2006). In Haat Kali sacred grove, Rawal community used fresh juice of flowers as blood purifier. Swertia cordata (G. Don) Clarke (Chirata)- It is reported as hepatoprotective and blood purifier (Reen et al., 2001; Pande et al., 2006). However, In Dhwaj sacred grove, Kapri

community prepared a mixture of powdered Swertia cordata leaves, Origanum vulgare leaves and Malaxis acuminata rhizome for the treatment of fever. They used it twice a day along with the milk to cure the fever. 3.5. Traditional beliefs, modes of treatment and dosage The local communities have strongly rooted beliefs pertaining to the deities or ancestors associated with the sacred groves and link the various diseases and ailments with their

behaviour towards them. Many sacrifices and constructions are often made in order to please the deity, which in turn is believed to have positive effect on the overall health and prosperity of the community members. This belief is also seen in the context of medicinal plant applications wherein the plants are first offered to the deities of the sacred grove and then applied to the needy patients. This is done as a token of respect towards the local God so that it does not cause any kind of harm or disturbance to the people living in that region. For the pray, they often used ‘Dhuni’ (wood of Cedrus deodara, Pinus spp., Quercus leucotrichophora are used in making fire in the main spiritual part or central portion of the grove) which make the villagers evil free (Singh et al., 2013). Many sacred plant species are also found in the vicinity of the groves such as Cedrus deodara (called Devdaru, meaning tree of Gods) found in Haat Kali, Patal Bhuvneshwar and Narayan Swami Ashram sacred groves, Quercus leucotrichophora (Banj) and Rhododendron arboreum (Buras) in Malay Nath, Dhwaj and Hokra sacred groves, etc. The local communities sometimes traditionally used Tantra-Mantra along with the herbs. During the survey it was observed that fresh twig of Zanthoxylum armatum DC. is applied with Mantras to treat toothache and earache. Jhar-Phoonk is another traditional way of treatment for various ailments and it is used in many parts of sacred groves in cases of septic wound, jaundice, etc. Babhuti (ash) is a sacred ash, which is used and recommended by Puchhar (magical physician) after examining the patients under the influence of spirit or under the anger of local deity. Some Tantra-Mantra and Taweez (Amulet) is also used to treat toothache, earache, scorpion stings and snakebite to protect from evil spirits. A large number of informants reported that most ailments were treated at a household level. The mode of treatment of diseases and dosage are also common among the sacred groves (Table 2). Most of the diseases are cured with the help of decoction, in the form of paste, powder, etc. of the plants. In Nakuleshwar sacred grove, the paste of Oxalis

corniculata is directly applied on cuts and wounds. Juice of Hedychium spicatum rhizome is taken as tonic in Haat Kali sacred grove. Pine resin of Pinus roxburghii is also applied at the side of the eye for curing redness in eyes. Sometime the mixture of several plant parts is used for the treatment of the diseases. For example, in Haat Kali sacred grove, Rawal community used the powder mixture of Viola canescens and Hedychium spicatum in cold, cough and asthma related problem and fresh Uritca dioca twig (bichhu buti) struck at the affected sides in sprains. 4.

Discussion In Kumaon Himalaya, the local communities are dependent upon their forest

resources such as fodder, fuel, agricultural tools, medicinal uses, household good, rituals programmes, etc. Dedicating the sacred grove to a particular deity has been practiced since long and it depends upon the beliefs of the local communities residing in that area. These groves are rich in medicinal plants and the knowledge among the communities is excellent through which they cure various diseases. On an average, significantly higher numbers of medicinal plants were claimed by illiterate men than women (30 men; 10 women; age group between 25 and 75 years). 11 respondents (10 men and 1 woman, aged between 60 and 75 years) constitute traditional plant practitioners (THP), whose tradition of healing practices are revered and trusted in the local community and play multiple roles as spiritual guides, counselors and healers. People, when found necessary, could consult other knowledgeable people in their respective local community with little or no charge. Remedy preparations often involved some sort of spiritual or ritual procedures. The knowledge about the medicinal plants is kept secret and is only transferred to their own generations, as also reported by other researchers (Giday et al., 2010; Sharma et al., 1992; Gedif and Hahn, 2002; Uniyal et al., 2006; Teklehaymanot, 2009; Panghal et al., 2010).

The plant families which are dominated within the identified seven groves are Asteraceae and Rosaceae both with 7 species, Rubiaceae, Berberidaceae and Polygonaceae with 4 species, Rutaceae and Lamiaceae 3 species, Acanthaceae, Fagaceae, Geraniacaeae, Apiaceae, Ranunculaceae, Lauraceae, Ericaceae, Moraceae with 2 species, Araceae, Hippatocastaceae, Caprifoliaceae, Aceraceae with 1 species, etc. While in Gymnosperm Pinaceae with 2 species, in Pteridophyta Adiantaceae with 3 species and in Lichen Parmeliaceae represent with 2 species and hence, indicates the good plant wealth in the groves. Similarly, herbs are used maximum for the treatment of diseases representing 51.11% while epiphytes are used minimum with 2.22%, while shrubs (16.66 %), trees (21.11%), climbers (8.88 %) by the local communities, which signifying the local people have immense knowledge of plants. The herbaceous species among the local communities could be result of their relative abundance as compared to trees, shrubs, climbers, and epiphytes as also witnessed by investigators. 55 plants species are showing maximum fidelity level of 100% and are frequently being used among the local communities for the treatment of various ailments. It is interesting to know that Cedrus deodara (Devdaru) showing 100% FL against gastrointestinal disorder, fever and dermatological disorder in the different sacred groves, indicates the importance of this sacred tree among the local people of studied sacred groves and thus, justify its name. Nearly 90% of informants reported that vertical transfer of medicinal plant knowledge was not taking place effectively due to lack of interest by the younger generation to learn and practice it mainly due to acculturation. Medicinal plants cited by informants (aged above 50 years) showed that elder men and illiterate people have better medicinal plant knowledge compared to younger generations, females and literate people. These observations correlates

well with studies conducted elsewhere (Sharma et al., 1992; Gedif and Hahn, 2003; Muthu and Ignacimuthu, 2005; Upadhyay et al., 2007; Panghal et al., 2010). Many treatments of the local communities in the sacred groves are common among the other part of world such as Bergenia ciliata for kidney stone and Rubia manjith for skin disease in Far-West Nepal (Kunwar et al., 2009), Origanum vulgare for toothache in Iran (Naghibi et al., 2005), Berberis asiatica for diabetes and Viola canescans for cold in Himachal Pradesh (Uniyal et al., 2006); Juglans regia for toothache, Taraxacum officinale for kidney and liver disorder and Viola canescens for cold, Ajuga bracteosa for jaundice in Pakistan (Ali et al., 2011). Similarly, the medicinal plants used for the same purpose by more than one community might indicate their pharmacological effectiveness. The ethnobotanical information collected from the local inhabitants of these sacred groves regarding their plant wealth also correlated with the reported pharmacological findings of these plants, such as, Asparagus racemosus for spermatorrhoea, also reported by Ghumare et al., 2004. Similarly, Aegle marmelos for gastric problem (Dhuley, 2007); Berberis aristata for diabetes (Mitra et al., 2011); Cedrus deodara for gastric problem (Kumar et al., 2011), Centella asiatica for skin diseases (Brinkhaus et al., 2000); Cinnamomum tamala as analgesic (Thamizhselvam et al., 2012), Hedychium spicatum for gastric problem (Srimal et al., 1984; Chaturvedi & Sharma, 1975); Solanum nigrum for liver disorders (Lina et al., 2008); Valeriana jatamansi for stomachache (Wagner and Juric, 1979); and Myrica esculentum for asthma (Chapal et al., 1999) have proved the depth of the traditional knowledge of the local communities of the sacred groves. The significance and importance of various plants having medicinal properties has also been reported by various areas of the Uttarakhand State (Table 2). In addition, 6 plant species are reported with new therapeutic uses including Equisetum arvense which is being used for the treatment of jaundice and may be a future remedy for liver disorders.

Sacred groves of Kumaon Himalayas are treasure house of many potential threatened medicinal plants, such as, Berberis aristata, Microstylis acuminata, Thalictrum foliolosum, Valeriana jatamansi, Taxus baccata, Hedychium spicatum, Paris pollyphylla (Samant et al., 1998; Pande et al., 2006; Arya 2006). Conservation and sustainable utilization of these potential plant drugs is important and the problem can be solved by conserving the sacred groves where the local people will take care of these important plants. These groves provide suitable habitat for the growth of rare, endangered and threatened medicinal plants and their sustainable natural regeneration. Sacred groves are the tracts of virgin forest that were left untouched by the local inhabitants, harbour rich biodiversity, and are protected by the local people due to their cultural and religious beliefs and taboos that the deities reside in them (Vartak et al., 1987). Local communities believe that the deity will punished them when they were taken a single leaf or a wood from the grove. Whenever the local people use plant from the grove, they take permission by collecting community or through panchayat (Singh et al., 2010 a; b). It is also evident from the Hokra forest, where the process of extracting the medicinal plants is now completely prohibited due to the loss of forest components and they were dedicating the whole forest to Hokra Devi for more than 20 years. Therefore, this approach of local communities is very useful for conserving and regeneration of large forest patches, which can be put into sustainable use for satisfying the people’s needs without burdening the ecosystem and maintaining its ecological integrity. 5. Conclusion This study reveals that the sacred groves in the Kumaon region of central Himalaya are rich sources of medicinal plants with many rare and threatened species. These are the best repository of medicinal plants which is not found abundantly elsewhere surrounding areas. It

is an excellent example of unique traditional way of in situ conservation which is an ideal provides indigenous practice of conservation for the modern world. Further, this documentation of the ethnomedicinal plants from the various sacred groves and the traditional knowledge of the indigenous people may open new vistas for future lead molecules /drugs for the humanity. There is an urgent need to set forth specific guidelines to safeguard sacred areas and promote traditional knowledge about conservation. This must involve the revitalization and enforcement of traditional education delineation of protective boundaries, improvement of relevant ecological knowledge, and official legal recognition of these factors (Negi, 2010). The social customs and management traditions techniques of local communities proved largely successful in the past and therefore have the potential to protect sacred groves in the future. Acknowledgements The authors are thankful to Director, CSIR-National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow to provide lab facilities and encouragement. The authors are also thankful to the local communities who shared their knowledge of plants and helped during the field survey. References Alcorn, J.B., 1996. Is biodiversity conserved by indigenous peoples? In: Jain, S.K., (Eds.), Ethnobiology in human Welfare. Deep publication New Dehli, India, pp. 234-238. Ali, H., Sannai, J., Sher, H., Rashid, A., 2011. Ethnobotanical profile of some plant resources in Malam Jabba valley of Swat, Pakistan. Journal of Medicinal Plants Research 5 (17), 4171-4180. Arya, K.R., Agarwal, S.C., 2006. Conservation of threatened medicinal and folklore plants through cultivation in Uttaranchal state. Ethnobotany 18, 77-86.

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Glossary Babhuti: a sacred ash. Jagar: Cultural-religious ceremony performed in the religious platform or ground to please the local deity and is held for one overnight Puchhar: a magical physician who is telling each and everything about the patient after examining the patients under the influence of spirit or under the anger of local deity by using piled rice. Sacred grove: Forest patches protected by local communities due to religious and spiritual beliefs system and they often represent the relict climax vegetation of the region.

Tantra-Mantra: Tantra is a divinely revealed body of teachings, explaining what is necessary and what is a hindrance in the practice of the worship of God; and also describing the specialized initiation and purification ceremonies that are the necessary prerequisites of Tantric practice. Mantra is a word or sound repeated to aid concentration in meditation. Taweez (Amulet): It can be any object but its most important characteristic is its alleged power to protect its owner from danger or harm. Potential amulets include gems, especially engraved gems, statues, coins, drawings, pendants, rings, plants and animals; even words in the form of a magical spell, incantation, to repel evil or bad luck. 

Figure Captions Fig. 1. Location Map of Different Sacred Groves Fig. 2. Habit and Taxonomic Distribution of Medicinal Plants in the Sacred Groves A-Habit of Ethno-medicinal Plants B-Taxonomic Distribution of Ethno-medicinal Plants (A) Angiosperm, (G) Gymnosperm, (L) Lichen, and (P) Pteridophyte. Fig. 3. Plant Parts Used as Ethno-medicine

Table 1. Different sacred groves, their location, communities and forest vegetation.

S. Name of the Latitude/Longitude/Altitude Local communities No. Sacred grove Kapri 1. Dhwaj 29038'48.62" N 0 80 17'14.45" E 2200 m

2.

Haat Kali

29039'26.53" N 80002'50.47" E 1668 m

Rawal

3.

Hokra

Bisht, Mehra

4.

Malay Nath

30001'24.00" N 80005'03.20" E 1700 m 29048'03.03" N 80014'45.69" E 2000 m

5.

Nakuleshwar 29032'44.20" N 80013'40.68" E 1530 m

6.

Narayan Swami Ashram

29058'12.50" N 80039'18.56" E 2750 m

7.

Patal Bhuveshwar

29041'16.40" N 80005'38.61" E 1616 m

Chupal, Bora

Rajis

Locality

Forest Vegetation

Near Totanula about 10 km from Pithoragarh district Near Gangolihat Tehsil 75 km from Pithoragarh district Near Tejam, Nachani Near Sherakot, Didihat

Rhododendron arboreum, Quercus leucotrichophora, Viburnum cotonifolium Cedrus deodara, Rhododendron arboreum, Quercus leucotrichophora

Near Et goan Shilling village 10 km from Pithoragarh town Bhotia, Near Sesa Rajis, Boxa village, Tawaghat, Dharchula Rawal, Guro, Berinag Tehsil, Bhandari, near Bora Gangolihat

Cinnamomum tamala Rhododendron arboreum, Quercus leucotrichophora, Lyonia ovalifolia Acer oblongum, Cedrus deodara, Cinnamomum tamala, Coraria nepalensis Taxus baccata, Rhododendron arboreum, Cedrus deodara Cedrus deodara, Quercus leucotrichophora

Table 2. List of plants used in different sacred groves. Plant Name

Voucher

Family

Uses

No.

Par

Local

Early

t

name

reporte

use

d

d

literatur e from Uttarak hand

Angiosperm Acer

LWG-

oblongum

215205

Aceraceae

Contracepti

Leav

ve

es

Dysentery,

Fruit

Phatgal

Pande et al., 2006

Wall ex DC

Aegle

LWG-

marmelos (L.) 215213 Correa

Rutaceae

diarrhoea

Bel

Pande et al., 2006; Kumar et al., 2011; Uniyal and Shiva, 2005; Kala et

al., 2006; Mathur and Joshi 2013 Aesculus

LWG-

indica (Wall.

215268

Sapindaceae Wounds,

Seed

Pangar

cracks

Pande et al., 2006

ex Cambess.) Hook.

Ageratum

LWG-

conyzoids L.

262831

Asteraceae

Wound,

Leav

cuts

es

Fulania

Pande et al., 2006; Gaur, 1999

Ainsliaea

LWG-

Asteraceae

aptera DC.

262332

Ainsliaea

LWG-

Asterace

Colic,

latifolia (D.

215225

ae

fever,

Don) Schulz-

Stomachach Root

Karu-buti,

Pande et

e

Kauru

al., 2006

Ram-ban,

Pande et

Kauru

al.,

Root

cholera

2006;

Bip.

Gaur, 1999

Ajuga

LWG-

Lamiacea

Jaundice

Leav

Neelkanth,

Pande et

bracteosa

215244

e

es

ratpatia

al., 2006

Rhiz

Khaprya

Uniyal and Shiva, 2005

Kheruoa

Uniyal and Shiva, 2005

Kilmora

Kumari

Wall. ex Benth.

Arisaema

LWG-

jacquemontii

262923

Araceae

Snake bite

ome

Blume

Asparagus

LWG-

Asparagace

Tonic,

Rhiz

racemosus

262880

ae

spermatorrh

ome

Willd.

oea

Berberis

LWG-

Berberidace

Diabetes,

aristata DC.

215297

ae

eye

et al.,

complaints,

2011;

jaundice

Singh

Root

and Rawat, 2011; Kala et al., 2006 Berberis

LWG-

Berberidace

Diabetes,

asiatica

215295

ae

eye

et al.,

complaints

2006

Roxb. ex DC.

Root

Kilmora

Uniyal

Berberis

LWG-

Berberidace

Eye

chitria Buch.-

97334

ae

complaints

Root

Kingore

Uniyal and

Ham. ex

Shiva,

Lindl.

2005; Rawat and Jalal, 2011; Bhatt and Negi, 2006

Bergenia

LWG-

Saxifragace

Kidney

Rhiz

Patarchur/Pa Bhat et

ciliata (Haw.)

97358

ae

stone, fever

ome

sanbed

Sternb.

al., 2013; Negi and Chauhan 2009; Uniyal and Shiva, 2005; Singh and

Rawat, 2011

Bidens pilosa LWG-

Asteracea

Ear, eye

Aeri

L.

e

problem,

al

toothache

part

249885

Bistorta

LWG-

Polygonacea Dysentery

amplexicaulis

249898

e

Root

Araka-jhar

Pande et al., 2006

Kutrya

Pande et al., 2006

(D. Don) Greene

Boenninghaus LWG-

Rutacea

Toothache,

Leav

enia albiflora 215212

e

cuts

es

Pissumar

Singh and

(Hook.) Rchb.

Rawat,

ex Meisn.

2011

Centella

LWG-

Apiac

Skin

Leav

asiatica (L.)

262832

eae

diseases,

es

Urb.

tonic

Birmi

Gangwa r and Joshi, 2008; Uniyal and Shiva,

2005; Mathur and Joshi, 2013 Cinnamomun

LWG-

Laurace

tamala Nees

215229

ae

Cough, cold Stem

ex Eberm.

Cirsium

LWG-

Aster

wallichii DC.

249876

aceae

Dysentery

Tejpat

Singh

bark/

and

Leav

Rawat,

es

2011

Root

Kendeiya,

Pande et

Kateri

al., 2006; Gaur, 1999

Clematis

LWG-97372

buchananiana

Ranunc

Skin

Leav

ulaceae

diseases

es

Diarrhoea,

Leav

cuts,

es

Kanguli

Pande et al., 2006

DC.

Cotoneaster

LWG-

microphyllus

215211

Wall. ex

Rosaceae

Bhedra

Pande et al.,

wounds

2006;

Lindl.

Gaur, 1999

Cyathula

LWG-

tomentosa

249894

Acanthaceae Skin diseases

Leav

Letkura/Ket

Pande et

es

ari

al., 2006

(Roth ) Moq.

Cynodon

LWG-

dactylon (L.)

262924

Poaceae

Vomiting,

Root

Doob

jaundice,

Pers.

Pande et al., 2006

diuretic

Desmodium

LWG-

heterocarpon

262377

Fabaceae

Urinary

Leav

diseases

es

Sarivan

Pande et al., 2006

(L.) DC.

Dicliptera

LWG-

Acanthacea Wounds,

Leav

bupleuroides

249895

e

es

Nees

stomach

Kulartore

Singh and

problem

Rawat, 2011

Duchesnea

LWG-

indica

262327

Rosaceae

Stomach

Fruit

problem

s

Bhui Kaphal Gaur, 1999;

(Andrews)

Pande et

Focke

al., 2006

Fagopyrum

LWG-

Polygonacea Urinary

Leav

esculentum

262926

e

disorder

es

Moraceae

Dysentery,

Fruit

Ugal

Pande et al., 2006

Moench

Ficus palmata LWGForssk.

261618

digestion,

Bedu

Pant, 2010

constipation F. auriculata

LWG-

Lour.

249900

Flemingia

LWG-

strobilifera

215209

Moraceae

Stomachach Fruit

Timul

e, dysentery

Fabaceae

Pande et al., 2006

Rheumatic

Who

Salpani/Bha

Pande et

pain,

le

dula

al., 2006

(L.) W.T.

bronchial

plant

Aiton

diseases,

Khusari-gha

Pande et

tonic Galinsoga

LWG-

parviflora

249882

Asteraceae

Indigestion

Leav es

al., 2006

Cav.

Galium

LWG-

asperifolium

262967

Rubiaceae

Skin

Leav

diseases

es

Leswakuri

Pande et al.,

Wall.

2006; Gaur, 1999

G.

LWG-

rotundifolium

262928

Rubiaceae

L.

Bronchitis,

Leav

throat,

es

Jharjharia

Pande et al.,

tonsil,

2006;

wounds,

Gaur,

colic,

1999

jaundice Geranium

LWG-

Geraniaceae

Antiseptic,

Who

Bheel-jadhi

Kumar

ocellatum

262317

Cambess.

*G

LWG-

Geraniaceae

.wallichianum 262319

liver, fever,

le

et al.,

diuretic

plant

2011

Dysentery,

Who

Bhanda/Bhe

*earache

le

el-jadhi

D. Don ex

Singh and Rawat, 2011

plant

Sweet

Hedera

LWG-

nepalensis K.

215228

Araliaceae

Ulcer

Rhiz

Arambel

ome

Pande et al., 2006

Koch

Hedychium

LWG-

Zingiberace

Bronchitis,

Rhiz

spicatum

262907

ae

tonic,

ome

Vanhaldu

Uniyal and

Buch.-Ham.

gastric

Shiva,

ex Smith.

trouble,

2005;

liver

Semwal

disease

et al., 2010

Hypericum

LWG-

oblongifolium

215220

Hyperiaceae

Wounds,

Leav

Peoli,

Pande et

boils

es

Peniuli

al., 2006

Mothya

Pande et

Choisy

Ipomoea nil

LWG-

Convolvulac Skin

Who

(L.) Roth

262828

eae

le

diseases

al., 2006

plant Juglans regia

LWG-

Juglandacea

Skin

Stem

L. var.

262830

e

diseases,

bark/

and

toothache

Fruit

Shiva,

kumaonica

Akrot

DC.

Uniyal

2005; Singh and Rawat, 2011; Rawat and Jalal, 2011

Lepidium

LWG-

Brassicacea

Body

Leav

sativum L.

215233

e

swelling

es

Leucas lanata

LWG-

Lamiaceae

Wounds

Leav

Benth.

262339

Chandrasur

Pande et al., 2006

Pipswas

es

Singh and Rawat, 2011; Pande et al., 2006

Lindenbergia

LWG-

Scrophularia Skin

Who

grandiflora

249893

ceae

le

(Buch.-Ham.

disease

plant

Vasanta

Pande et al., 2006

ex D. Don) Benth.

*Lindera

LWG-

pulcherrima

215257

Lauraceae

*Skin

Leav

Cherry

Pande et

disease

es

Scabies,

Leav

Anyar,

Kumar

wounds,

es

Aiyar

et al.,

al., 2006

(Nees) Hook. f.

Lyonia

LWG-

ovalifolia

262335

Ericaceae

(Wall.) Drude

boils

2011

Mahonia

LWG-

Berberidace

Fever, skin

Stem

Baloo

Pande et

napaulensis

215254

ae

diseases,

Bark

kilmore

al., 2006

eye

/Roo

cataracts,

t

Hari-musali

Jalal et

DC.

diuretic Malaxis

LWG-

acuminata D.

97336

Orchidaceae

Bronchitis

Rhiz ome

al., 2008

Don

Melothria

LWG-

Cucurbitace

heterophylla

262902

ae

(Lour.) Cogn.

Cuts

Leav es

Gwal-kakri,

Pande et al., 2006

Myrica

LWG-

esculenta

215265

Myricaceae

Cough,

Fruit

diarrhoea,

/Ste

and

Buch.–Ham.

asthma,

m

Shiva,

ex D. Don

dysentery

bark

2005;

Khaphal

Uniyal

Pande et al., 2006 Myrsine

LWG-

Myrsinaceae

Colic,

Fruit

Gaunta

Pande et

semiserrata

21528

menstral

al.,

Wall.

1

disoder

2006; Gaur, 1999

Origanum

LWG-

vulgare L.

21526

Lamiaceae

Cough,

Leav

toothache

es

Van tulsi

Uniyal and

4

Shiva, 2005; Singh and Rawat, 2011

Oxalis

LWG-

corniculata L. 26232 3

Oxalidaceae

Wounds,

Who

Chilmori

Pande et

scurvy,

le

al.,

jaundice

plant

2006; Mathur and Joshi,

2013 Paris

LWG-

polyphylla

26291

Smith

9

Peperomia

LWG-

tetraphylla

26286

(Forst. f.)

5

Melanthiaceae

Piperaceae

Stomach

Rhiz

Mithi-bach,

Pande et

problems

ome

Satwa

al., 2006

Wounds,

Who

Tirpirya

Pande et

burns

le

al., 2006

plant

Hook. & Arn.

Pimpinella

LWG-

diversifolia

24986

problem,

DC.

9

cold, cough

Prinsepia

LWG-

utilis Royle

26230

trouble,

and

5

burns, cuts,

Rawat,

wounds

2011

Pyracantha

LWG-

crenulata (D.

26238

Don) M.

3

Apiaceae

Rosaceae

Rosaceae

Stomach

Stomach

Constipatio

Fruit

Teroi,

Kumar

Phoree

et al., 2011

Fruit

Fruit

Bhekal

Ghingaru

n

Singh

Pande et al., 2006

Roem.

*Quercus

LWG-

leucotrichoph

26291

Fagaceae

*Energetic,

Stem

bronchial

bark/

Banj

Pande et al., 2006

ora A. Camus

5

problem,

resin

stomachach e Q.

LWG-

semecarpifoli

26291

a Smith

4

Ranunculus

LWG-

arvensis L.

26230

Fagaceae

Ranunculaceae

Cuts,

Leav

wounds

es

Fever, skin

Who

diseases

le

al.,

plant

2006;

2

Kharsu

Pande et al., 2006

Chambul

Pande et

Gaur, 1999 Reinwardtia

LWG-

indica

215243

Linaceae

Wounds

Leav

Pyoli

es

Pande et al., 2006

Dumort.

*Rhododendr

LWG-

on arboreum

262336

Ericaceae

Smith

*Blood

Flow

purifier

ers

Buras

Kumar et al., 2011

Manjit/Khu

Pande et

dera

al., 2006

Van hisalo

Pande et

stomach problem,

Rubia manjith LWGRoxb. ex

Rubiaceae

249872

Fever,

Root

jaundice,

Fleming

skin diseases

Rubus

LWG-

Rosaceae

Diarrhoea

Fruit

biflorus

262929

al.,

Buch.-Ham.

2006;

ex Smith

Gaur, 1999

R. ellipticus

LWG-

Smith

215221

Rosaceae

Diarrhoea,

Fruit

Hisalo

dysentery,

Pande et al., 2006

constipation , vomiting R. niveus

LWG-

Rosaceae

Stomachach Fruit

Kaloo hisalu Pande et

Thunb.

261621

Rumex

LWG-

Polygonacea Scurvy

Leav

Khatta-

Pande et

hastatus D.

249897

e

es

meetha,

al., 2006

e

al., 2006

Bhilmora

Don

R . nepalensis

LWG-

Polygonacea Stomach

Spreng.

215278

e

Root

Jangli-palak

Pande et

trouble,

al.,

scurvy

2006; Gaur, 1999

Smilax aspera LWGL.

215238

Solanum

LWG-

nigrum L.

249891

Smilacaceae

Skin

Root

Kukurdara

diseases

Solanaceae

al., 2006

Liver tonic, Leav skin

Pande et

es/

Makoi

Bisht and

diseases,

Fruit

Bhatt,

fever

s

2012; Kala et al., 2006

Spermadictyo

LWG-

n suaveolens

249874

Rubiaceae

Roxb.

Diarrhoea,

Leav

cholera,

es

Padar

Gaur, 1999;

wounds

Pande et al., 2006

*Swertia

LWG-

Gentianacea

*Fever,

cordata

215218

e

blood

(Wall. ex G.

Root

Chirata

Pande et al., 2006

purifier

Don) Clarke

Taraxacum

LWG-

officinale

249889

Asteraceae

Liver

Root

Kanphul

trouble,

Webb

Pande et al., 2006

kidney problem

Thalictrum

LWG-

Ranunculac

Fever,

foliolosum

97346

eae

leucoderma,

DC.

Root

Mamiri/Mak Uniyal and kar ghas Shiva, 2005; Pande et al., 2006; Gaur, 1999

Leav

Chatkura

toothache, diuretic

Urena lobata

LWG-

L.

97354

Malvaceae

Diuretic

es

Pande et al., 2006

Urtica dioica

LWG-

L.

262345

Urticaceae

Swelling

Aeri

Bhichu-

Pande et

al

ghas/sin

al., 2006

Sameo

Uniyal

part Valeriana

LWG-

Valerianace

Stomachach Rhiz

jatamansi

215256

ae

e

ome

and

Jones

Shiva, 2005

Viburnum

LWG-

Caprifoliace

cotinifolium

249870

ae

Viola

LWG-

Violaceae

canescens

262314

Digestive

Leav

Ghinua

es

Pant, 2010

D. Don

Wall.

Cold,

Who

cough,

le

et al.,

fever,

plant

2010;

Banafsha

jaundice

Tiwari

Singh and Rawat, 2011; Pande et al., 2006

Zanthoxylum

LWG-

armatum DC.

215253

Rutaceae

Cold ,

Seed

Timur

Uniyal

toothache

s/

and

Stem

Shiva, 2005;

Semwal et al., 2010; Singh and Rawat, 2011 Gymnosperm Cedrus

LWG-

deodara

262854

Pinaceae

Scabies,

Stem

Deyar,

Kala

fever,

bark

devdar

2007

Leaves

Chir

Pande et

(Roxb.)

dysentery

Loud.

, urinary disorder, ulcer

Pinus

LWG-

roxburghii

262856

Pinaceae

Boil

al., 2006

Sarg.

Taxus

LWG-

baccata L.

262855

Taxaceae

Cold

Stem

Thuner

bark

Pande et al., 2006

Pteridophyte Adiantum

LW

capillusveneris L.

Adiantaceae

Cough,

Whole

G-

mouth

plant

2629

blisters,

Hansraj

Pande et al., 2006

56

eye diseases, fever, bronchitis , menstrual complaint

Adiantum

LW

lunulatum Burm. f.

Adiantaceae

Fever,

Whole

G-

asthma,

plant

2629

cough

Dun-sink

Pande et al., 2006

48 Adiantum

LW

venustum

G-

D. Don

2629

Adiantaceae

Cough,

Whole

Kalo

Pande et

fever

plant

Hansraj

al., 2006

34 *Equisetum

LW

arvense L.

G-

Equisetaceae

*Jaundice Aerial

Jor-ka-tora

part

2616 14 Lichen LWG-09-011326 Parmeli Everniastru

aceae

Cold

Thallus

Jhulla/Chadi Chandra lla

and

m

Singh,

cirrhatum

1971

(Fr.) Hale

Parmotrem

LWG-09-011343 Parmeli

a reticulatum (Taylor) M.Choisy



* New Reports

aceae

Cold

Thallus

Jhulla/Chadi Singh et lla

al., 2012

Table 3. Category of ailments and their informant consensus factor (ICF) Category (diseases and

Plant species

Use reports

disoders)

Informant consensus factor (ICF)

Gastro-intestinal

disorder 27

38

0.29

(colic, cholera, digestion, dysentry,

stomachache,

constipation, vomiting) Jaundice

7

10

0.33

Fever

14

20

0.32

(bronchitis, 15

20

0.26

52

0.29

15

0.28

12

0.36

14

0.23

Respiratory

cold, cough, asthma) Dermatological

disorder 37

(cuts, wounds, boils, foot cracks, burns) General health (tonic, blood 11 purification, ulcer, scurvy, energetic) Urological problem (kidney 8 stone, diuretic) Body pains (toothache, ear, 11 eye diseases, swelling) Snake bite

1

3

-

Liver

5

10

0.55



Table 4. Fidelity level (FL) of ethnomedicinal plants of the study area. Illness categories Gastro-intestinal

Plants with fidelity level (FL) disorder Aegle marmelos (100%), Ainsliaea aptera (100%), A. latifolia

(colic, chlorea, digestion, (25%), Bistorta amplexicaulis (100%), Cedrus deodara dysentry,

stomachache, (100%), Cirsium wallichii (50%), Cotoneaster microphyllus

constipation, vomitting)

(60%), Cynodon dactylon (100%), Dicliptera bupleuroides (50%), Duchesnea indica (71.42%), Ficus palmata (100%), F. auriculata (66.66%), Galinsoga parviflora (100%), Geranium wallichianum (100%), Hedychium spicatum (50%), Myrica esculanta (66.66%), Paris polyphylla (100%), Pimpinella diversifolia (100%),, Prinsepia utilis (100%), Quercus leucotrichophora (25%), Rhododendron arboreum (66.66%), Rubus biflorus (100%), R. ellipticus (100%), R. niveus (100%) Rumex nepalensis (50%), Spermadictyon suaveolens (50%), Valeriana jatamansi (50%), Viburnum cotinifolium (50%).

Jaundice

Ajuga bracteosa (100%), Berberis asiatica (33.34%), Cynodon dactylon

(100%),

Equisetum

arvense

(100%),

Oxalis

corniculata (25%), Rubia manjith (25%), Viola canescens (33.33%) Fever

Adiantum capillus-veneris (33.34%), A. lunulatum (37.5%), A. venustum (75%), Ainsliaea latifolia (50%), Bergenia ciliata (75%), Cedrus deodara (100%), Geranium ocellatum (25%), Mahonia napaulensis (50%), Ranunculus arvensis (50%), Rubia manjith (75%), Solanum nigrum (20%), Swertia cordata (100%), Thalictrum foliolosum (100%), Viola canescens

(100%). Respiratory

(bronchitis, Adiantum capillus-veneris (11.11%), A. lunulatum (37.5%),

cold, cough, asthma)

Cinnamomum tamala (100%), Hedychium spicatum (50%), Malaxis acuminata (100%), Myrica esculentum (33.33%), Origanum vulgare (100%), Pimpnella diversifolia (50%), Quercus leucotrichophora (25%), Taxus baccata (50%), Viola canescens

(66.66%),

Zanthoxylum

armatum

(50%),

Parmotrema reticulatum (100%), Everniastrum cirrhatum (100%) Dermatological

disorder Adiantum lunulatum (12.5%), Aesculus indica (100%),

(cuts, wounds, boils, foot Ageratum conyzoides (100%), Arisaema jacquemontii (50%), cracks, burns)

Boenninghausenia albiflora (25%), Cedrus deodara (100%), Centella asiatica (100%), Clematis buchananina (100%), Cotoneaster microphyllus (40%), Cyathula tomentosa (100%), Dicliptera bupleuroides (100%), Duchesnia indica (28.57%), Ficus palmata (33.34%), F. auriculata (66.66%), Galinsago parviflora

(100%),

Galium

asperifolium

(100%),

G.

rotundifolium (100%), Hypericum oblongifolium (100%), Ipomoea nil (100%), Juglans regia (16.66%), Leucas lanata (100%), Lindenbergia glandiflora (50%), Lyonia ovalifolia (100%), Lindera pulcherrima (100%), Mahonia napaulensis (100%), Melothria heterophylla (100%), Oxalis corniculata (25%), Peperomia tetraphylla (50%), Pinus roxburghii (100%), Prinsepia utilis (100%), Quercus semecarpifolia (100%),

Ranunculus arvensis (50%), Rubuia manjith (50%), Smilax aspera (33.34%), Solanum nigrum (60%), Spermadictyon suaveolens (100%), Thalictrum foliolosum (50%). General

health

(tonic, Asparagus racemosus (80%), Centella asiatica (50%),

blood purification, ulcer, Desmodium heterocarpon (50%), Dicliptera bupleuroides scurvy, energetic)

(50%), Hedera nepalensis (100%), Hedychium spicatum (100%), Oxalis corniculata (50%), Quercus leucotrichophora (50%), Rhododendron arboreum (100%), Rumex nepalensis (25%), Swertia cordata (50%).

Urological problem (kidney Adiantum stone, diuretic)

venustum

(25%),

Ainsliea

aptera

(33.34%),

Desmodium heterocarpon (100%), Fagopyrum esculentum (100%), Geranium ocellatum (25%), Taraxacum officinale (100%), Thalictrum foliolosum (100%), Urena lobata (100%).

Body pains (toothache, ear, Adiantum capillus-veneris (11.11%), Berberis aristata (100%), eye diseases, swelling)

B. asiatica (100%), B. chitria (100%), Bidens pilosa (100%), Boenninghausenia albiflora (75%), Geranium wallichianum (100%), Juglans regia var. kumaonica (83.33%), Mahonia napaulensis (50%), Thalictrum foliolosum (50%), Urtica dioica (50%).

Snakebite

Arisaema jacquemontii (-)

Liver problem

Eclipta alba (50%), Geranium ocellatum (25%), Hedychium spicatum (50%), Solanum nigrum (60%), Taraxacum officinale (66.66%).



Figure

Figure

Figure

An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used in sacred groves of Kumaon Himalaya, Uttarakhand, India.

International organizations recognize the importance of sacred groves and place them into the context of sustainable development and also emphasize to...
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