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An Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used in sacred groves of Kumaon Himalaya, Uttarakhand, India Harsh Singh, Tariq Husain, Priyanka Agnihotri, P.C. Pande, Sayyada Khatoon
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Received date: 29 October 2013 Revised date: 28 February 2014 Accepted date: 11 March 2014 Cite this article as: Harsh Singh, Tariq Husain, Priyanka Agnihotri, P.C. Pande, Sayyada Khatoon, An Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used in sacred groves of Kumaon Himalaya, Uttarakhand, India, Journal of Ethnopharmacology, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2014.03.026 This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript. The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting galley proof before it is published in its final citable form. Please note that during the production process errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain.
An Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used in sacred groves of Kumaon Himalaya, Uttarakhand, India Harsh Singh**1, Tariq Husain1, Priyanka Agnihotri1, P.C. Pande2 and Sayyada Khatoon*3 1. Plant Diversity, Systematics and Herbarium Division CSIR-National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh (INDIA) 2. Department of Botany, D.S.B. Campus, Kumaun University, Uttarakhand (INDIA) 3. Pharmacognosy and Ethnopharmacology Division CSIR-National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh (INDIA) *Author for correspondence: Senior Scientist, Pharmacognosy and Ethnopharmacology Division, CSIR-National Botanical Research Institute, Rana Pratap Marg, Lucknow 226 001, India. Tel.: +91 522 2297817, Fax: +91 522 2205836, 2205839 Email:
[email protected];
[email protected];
[email protected] OR ** Author for another correspondence: CSIR-Young Scientist, Plant Diversity, Systematics and Herbarium Division, CSIR-National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow 226 001, Uttar Pradesh (INDIA) Email:
[email protected] Abstract Ethnopharmacological relevance: International organisations recognize the importance of sacred groves and place them into the context of sustainable development and also emphasize to conserve biodiversity through protection of sacred groves and sties. The significance of medicinal plants from Himalayan region is well known to the world. Therefore, present study was conducted in identified sacred groves of Kumaon Himalaya to investigate and document the utilization of medicinal plants by various local communities and tribal people. Materials and methods: The study was conducted during 2008-2011 in four seasons of the year. Information was collected from 70 locals from different sacred groves by using free listing interviews with randomly selected informants and semi-structured questionnaires;
plants specimens were collected, identified and deposited at the CSIR-NBRI (LWG), Lucknow, India. Results: Seven sacred groves viz., Dhwaj, Haat Kali, Hokra, Malay Nath, Nakuleshwar, Narayan Swami Ashram and Patal Bhuvneshwar were identified from the Pithoragarh district of Kumaon Himalaya. 89 medicinal plants belonging to 52 families and 77 genera of which, 2 are lichens, 4 are pteridophytes, 3 are gymnosperms and remaining 80 plant species are angiosperms. 6 plant species are reported with new therapeutic uses for the first time in this paper. Highest informant’s consensus factor value was found in liver disorder (0.55) and least by body pains (0.23). 55 ethnomedicinal plants are showing 100% fidelity level against various diseases. Conclusion: Sacred groves in Kumaon region of Indian Himalaya are rich sources and best repository of ethno-medicinally important plants with many rare, endangered and threatened species. It is an excellent example of unique traditional way of in situ conservation of different plant species. Keywords Kumaon Himalaya; Sacred grove; Ethnobotany; Traditional knowledge; Conservation
1.
Introduction
The herbal medicines serve the health needs of about 80% of the world’s population, especially for millions of people in the rural areas of developing countries (WHO, 2001). The usage of medicinal plants for primary health care needs by millions of people in developing world is still occupying a prominent position (WHO, 2002). Different types of ailments are prevalent in different cultural groups and ethnic communities spread all over the world (Leslie and Young, 1992). Due to the close association with nature and its various components, the tribal and local communities have effectively developed their traditional knowledge system which incorporates the use of locally available plants and its products for
treatment of various ailments (Kala, 2005). The biodiversity of Indian Himalayas has been well known as an important source of traditional medicines since million of years and has been explored by people from across the world. In fact, the association of religion with ecosystem management is interwoven in the symbiotic network of the Himalayan communities (Joshi, 1992). The international organisations such as United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), Man and Biosphere (MAB) and the World Heritage Convention (WHC) clearly recognize the importance of sacred groves or sites and place them into the context of sustainable development. Therefore, the international organizations continue to play a leading role to conserve and benefit from biodiversity through protection of sacred groves and sties (UNESCO 1972; 1996). In India, it is estimated that there are between 100000-150000 sacred groves throughout the country (Malhotra et al., 2001). These groves have higher richness and regeneration of medicinal plants than reserve forests (Boraiah et al., 2003) and are repositories and nurseries of many of the local Ayurvedic, Unani, Tribal and Folk medicines which slowly entered into the modern medicines after careful screening (Bhakat and Sen, 2008). They also serve as rich repositories of biodiversity of endemic, endangered and rare species flora and fauna (Jeeva et al., 2005). Several studies have documented the role of sacred groves in protection and conservation of biodiversity all across India (Vartak et al., 1987; Bhakat and Pandit, 2003 & 2004; Bhandary and Chandrasekhar, 2003; Pandit and Bhakat, 2007). Ethnomedicinal plants of North-Eastern Himalaya and South Indian sacred groves have already been reported from Indian region (Prasad et al., 1996; Britto et al., 2005; Upadhaya et al., 2005; Khumbongmayum et al., 2005; Sukumaran and Raj, 2010). However, sacred groves of Kumaon Himalaya also have immense resource of ethnomedicinal plants and the local people depend on it for curing various diseases and ailments. The Kumaon Himalayas form an important part of the Uttarakhand district in north India. It is one of the
major centers for cultural and traditional diversity, herbal medicines and rich floristic wealth including many endemic and rare plants. The rural communities of this region are very much dependent on biological resources for their sustenance. Sacred groves in Kumaon Himalaya are rich in biodiversity and a number of such groves are present in every village or a group of few villages having own deity, often surrounded by a forest patch considered as sacred (Bisht and Ghildiyal, 2007). Earlier, reports on Nakuleshwar, Haat Kali, Malya Nath and Patal Bhuvenshwar sacred groves (Singh et al. 2010a; b; Singh 2011; Singh et al., 2011; Singh et al., 2012; Singh et al., 2013) limited their studies with conservation of biodiversity and some ethnobotanical uses. It is notable that, the sacred groves harbouring rich medicinal plant growth but scanty studies have been carried out to document these resources and their importance with respect to the local people. Keeping in view the need for highlighting the role of sacred groves as repositories of medicinal plants and their applications by the local people, the present study was conducted in the seven sacred groves with the objectives: (i) to identify unexplored sacred groves of Kumaon Himalayas; (ii) to document the traditional approaches of various indigenous and tribal people of the groves; (iii) to get the knowledge and documentation of the ethnomedicinal plants in view of the future opportunities to discover new drugs.
2.
Materials and methods
2.1.
Study area
The study was conducted in seven sacred groves of Pithoragarh district of Kumaon Himalayas in Uttarakhand state. Pithoragarh district is located between 29°35Nand80°13Eto 29.58°Nand80.22°E with a geographical area of 7,100 sq. km. It is bordered by Tibet plateau
on the north and Nepal of the east along with the Garhwal portion (Chamoli district) and Kumaon portion of Bageshwar, Almora and Champawat district. Rivers like Dauliganga, Kali
Goriganga and Ramganga are the main rivers which covers the whole district. Generally, there are four seasons in a year viz. winter, summer, rainy and spring but, winter season is for six months starting from October to March. The temperate is variable in different part of Pithoragarh district i.e. up to 0 °C in winter and reaches up to 30 ºC in summer, depends on the range of mountains. The topography ranges from 500 m to 4000 m and consists of different forest types. 1000 m-1500 m represents semi-temperate type forest. Above 1500 m to 2000 m represents sub-temperate type forest and 2000 m to 3000 m represents temperate type of forest. Mostly Quercus spp., Rhododendron spp. and Cedrus deodara are dominant species. Alpine range staring from 3000 m to 4000 m represents bugyals meadows (alpine meadows) with Betula utilis, Abies spp., Rhododendron anthopogon, R. campanulatum, Saussurea spp., Aconitum spp., etc. The district is also privileged being a pathway for the great Kailash Mansarovar pilgrimage. For the study, seven sacred groves viz., Dhwaj, Haat Kali, Hokra, Malay Nath, Nakuleshwar, Narayan Swami Ashram and Patal Bhuvneshwar have been identified from the Pithoragarh district in Kumaon Himalaya (Fig. 1) (Singh, 2011). 2.2.
Collection and deposition of ethnomedicinal plants
Critical field surveys were undertaken during 2008-2011 in all the four seasons viz., spring, summer, rainy, and winter in aforesaid sacred groves. Plant specimens were collected either in flowering or fruiting stage in triplicate. Further, specimens were processed as per routine herbarium techniques recommended by Jain and Rao (1977) and were deposited in LWG herbarium (a herbarium of CSIR-National Botanical Research Institute), Lucknow. The specimens were identified with help of different floras, monographs, revisions and other available literatures (Osmaston, 1927; Gupta, 1968; Raizada and Saxena 1978; Naithani, 1984, 1985; Gaur, 1999).
2.3.
Sacred groves and local communities
Sacred groves of Pithoragarh district, Kumaon Himalaya are commonly known as ‘Devta Than’ or simply ‘Than’. These groves are situated at different altitudinal gradients ranging from 1530 m - 2730 m and represents sub-temperate moist to temperate type of vegetation. Identified seven sacred groves are inhabitants by various local communities, which are directly or indirectly dependent on floral wealth of the groves. (1) Dhwaj sacred grove is devoted to local deity ‘Jyanti Maa’ and the local community is Kapri. (2) Haat Kali sacred grove is devoted to ‘Maa Kali’ under the customs of Rawals community. (3) Hokra sacred grove is devoted to a famous deity ‘Hokra Devi’, who is much feared goddess among the Mehra and Bisht communities in this area. No one enter and collect even a single leaf or wood from the grove without the permission or pray to this deity. (4) Malay Nath sacred grove is another grove which is devoted to ‘Malay Nath Dev” (a god for agricultural activities) and this forest patch is conserved Chupal community. (5) Narayan Swami Ashram is devoted to ‘Narayan Dev’ and is conserved by more than one tribal community such as Boxa, Bhotia, and Rajis tribe. (6) Nakuleshwar is devoted to ‘Lord Shiva’ conserved by Rajis tribe. (7) Patal Bhuvneshwar is also devoted to ‘Lord Shiva’ and inhabitant by Bhandari, Bora, Guro and Rawal communities. The altitudes, vegetation, and medicinal plants of aforesaid sacred groves are given (Table 1). 2.4.
Ethnobotanical data collection
Ethnobotanical data was collected through free listing interviews with randomly selected informants and field interviews with key informants selected after free listing (Ghorbani et al., 2011). The questionnaire was mainly focused on the ethnobotanical claims and traditional beliefs of local communities and nearby people. The interviews were conducted using the local language (Kumaoni), as the first author is a local person of the region. For the ethnomedicinal information, a total of 70 informants (55 males; 15 females) were interviewed
randomly from the various sacred groves. However, age class were into consideration to get the ration of knowledge and beliefs on ethnomedicinal plants within the age groups; 5 were from 70-75 years of age, 38 were 60-65 years of age 12 were 50-60 years of age, 10 were from 45-50 years of age and 5 were 25-45 years of age. 2.5.
Data analysis
The medicinal uses of the plants were classified into different categories following the standard chart developed by Heinrich et al. (1998). To test the homogeneity of knowledge on the use of plants in the illness categories between the populations, we used the informant consensus factor (Heinrich et al., 1998): ICF =Nur-Nt/(Nur-1), where Nur refers to the number of use reports for a particular use category and Nt refers to the number of taxa used for a particular use category by all informants. For the quantitative data analysis of ethnomedicinal plants, we used fidelity level (FL) index as described by Friedman et al., (1986) to determine the most preferred species used in the treatment of a particular ailment as more than one plant species are in treatment in the same category; FL (%) = (Np /N x 100), where Np is the number of informants citing the use of the plant for a particular illness and N is the total number of informants citing the species for any illness. 3.
Results
3.1.
Ethno-medicinal plants and uses reported by the informants
A total of 89 ethnomedicinally important plants were collected and identified belonging to 48 families and 76 genera, of which, 2 are lichens, 3 are pteridophytes, 2 are gymnosperms and remaining 82 plant species are angiosperms. In these groves, the herbs are represented by 43 species and are found to be more prominent growth form for treatment of various ailments followed by shrubs (20 species), trees (18 species), climber (6 species) and least by thallus of lichens (‘Chadilla’ or ‘Jhulla’) with 2 species (Fig. 2A). The distribution of these plants/parts in the taxonomical families is represented in Fig. 2B. The local people of the groves
recognized the plant species by the various vernacular names such as Kilmora for Berberis species; Van Haldu for Hedychium spicatum; Buras for Rhododendron arboreum, etc., (Table 2). Of the various plant parts used for the treatment of ailments, the leaves were being used maximum represented by 31.57% followed by root or rhizome, fruits, whole plant, stem bark, aerial parts, thallus of lichen, seeds, flowers and stem with 24.21, 14.73, 12.63, 7.36, 3.15, 2 2.10, 2.10, 1.05, 1.05 per cent respectively (Fig. 3). Most of the medicinal plants are common among the different sacred groves and the way of using the medicinal plants is quite similar among the different local communities of the sacred groves. 3.2.
Informant’s consensus factor and Fidelity level for therapeutic purposes
The ethno-medicinal plants were reported to be used for treating 32 different ailments which are grouped into 10 categories. The highest informant’s consensus factor (ICF) value was 0.55 for liver disorder, followed by urological (0.36), jaundice (0.33), fever (0.32), gastrological (0.29), dermatological (0.29), general (0.28) categories indicated moderate consistency of informant knowledge in the use of these medicinal plants species while the low ICF value of respiratory (0.26) and body pains (0.23) indicates the less consistency of the informants knowledge in the plants used for treatment (Table 3). The fidelity value (FL) of a plant species for a specific disease in the study area varied from 11.11% to 100%. The 100% FL is expressed by 21 plant species for dermatological disorder followed by 14, 5, 5, 5, 4, 3 and 3 for Gastrointestinal disorder, body pain, respiratory problems, urological problems, fever, jaundice, general health category respectively (Table 4). 3.3.
Rare and threatened medicinal plants
Among the 89 plant species recorded, some plants species are under the serious threat of extinction and are listed in various local and red data list. Bergenia ciliata (Haw.) Sternb. (Vulnerable), Berberis aristata DC. (Endangered), Hedychium spicatum Buch.-Ham. ex
Smith. (Vulnerable), Malaxis acuminata D. Don (Vulnerable), Valeriana jatamansi Jones (Critically Endangered), Paris pollyphylla Smith (Endangered), Thalictrum foliolosum DC. (Vulnerable), Taxus baccata L. (Critically Endangered), etc. are some of the Rare, Endangered and Threatened (RET) medicinal plants which are reported from these sacred groves. 3.4. New reports The recorded information of medicinal remedies was compared with those gathered by earlier published ethno-botanical surveys. A review of literature indicated that 6 out of the 89 plant species are reported with new therapeutic uses (Table 2). The ethno-botanical claims associated with these six species are as follows: Equisetum arvense L. (Jor-ka-tora) - It has long been used as a folklore medicine for the treatment of various conditions such as tuberculosis, as a catarrh in the kidney and bladder regions, as a homeostatic for profuse menstruation, nasal, pulmonary and gastric haemorrhages, for rheumatic diseases, gout, poorly healing wounds and ulcers, swelling, fractures, for brittle fingernails and loss of hair, for frost bite (Sandhu et al., 2010). However, the Rawal community of Haat Kali sacred grove is using this plant for the treatment of jaundice. The mode of treatment is reported as a half glass of Juice of whole plant twice a day. Geranium wallichianum D. Don ex Sweet (Bhanda/Bheel-jadhi)- The plant is reported for the treatment of ulceration, dysentery, diarrhoea, haemorrhage, gonorrhoea, leucorrhoea, toothache and diabetes (Zabta et al., 2003; Singh and Rawat, 2011). Ismail et al (2012) also reported the paste of this plant for superficial skin infections and its infusion for the treatments of diarrhoea. In Dhwaj sacred grove, Kapri community is applying one to two drops of fresh juice of this plant directly to the ear for the treatment of earache.
Lindera pulcherrima (Nees) Benth. ex Hook. (Cherry)- In Malaynath sacred grove, Chuphal community used the leaves for skin diseases. They crushed the leaves and applied the paste on the affected areas to cure the skin diseases. However, the previous information of this plant is related to the use of bark and leaves as spice, in cold, fever, and cough (Joshi et al., 2010). Quercus leucotrichophora A. Camus (Banj)- Gum of the tree is traditionally used for gonorrhoeal and digestive disorders (Pande et al., 2006). The seeds are astringent and diuretic and are used in the treatment of gonorrhoea, indigestion, diarrhoea and asthma (Chopra et al., 1986). Gum of this plant is being used as energetic by the Bhotia community of Narayan Swami Ashram sacred grove. They prepared a completely dried compound formulation by adding powdered roots of Hedychium spicatum and Malaxis acuminata with the gum and take one tablespoon of this mixture along with the milk to get energy. Rhododendron arboreum Smith (Buras)- The plant is reported as anti-diarrheal, antioxidant, anti-diabetic, hepatoprotective, anti-inflammatory and anti-nociceptive (Kumar et al., 2011Srivastava, 2012) and to cure nasal-bleeding (Uniyal et al., 2006). In Haat Kali sacred grove, Rawal community used fresh juice of flowers as blood purifier. Swertia cordata (G. Don) Clarke (Chirata)- It is reported as hepatoprotective and blood purifier (Reen et al., 2001; Pande et al., 2006). However, In Dhwaj sacred grove, Kapri
community prepared a mixture of powdered Swertia cordata leaves, Origanum vulgare leaves and Malaxis acuminata rhizome for the treatment of fever. They used it twice a day along with the milk to cure the fever. 3.5. Traditional beliefs, modes of treatment and dosage The local communities have strongly rooted beliefs pertaining to the deities or ancestors associated with the sacred groves and link the various diseases and ailments with their
behaviour towards them. Many sacrifices and constructions are often made in order to please the deity, which in turn is believed to have positive effect on the overall health and prosperity of the community members. This belief is also seen in the context of medicinal plant applications wherein the plants are first offered to the deities of the sacred grove and then applied to the needy patients. This is done as a token of respect towards the local God so that it does not cause any kind of harm or disturbance to the people living in that region. For the pray, they often used ‘Dhuni’ (wood of Cedrus deodara, Pinus spp., Quercus leucotrichophora are used in making fire in the main spiritual part or central portion of the grove) which make the villagers evil free (Singh et al., 2013). Many sacred plant species are also found in the vicinity of the groves such as Cedrus deodara (called Devdaru, meaning tree of Gods) found in Haat Kali, Patal Bhuvneshwar and Narayan Swami Ashram sacred groves, Quercus leucotrichophora (Banj) and Rhododendron arboreum (Buras) in Malay Nath, Dhwaj and Hokra sacred groves, etc. The local communities sometimes traditionally used Tantra-Mantra along with the herbs. During the survey it was observed that fresh twig of Zanthoxylum armatum DC. is applied with Mantras to treat toothache and earache. Jhar-Phoonk is another traditional way of treatment for various ailments and it is used in many parts of sacred groves in cases of septic wound, jaundice, etc. Babhuti (ash) is a sacred ash, which is used and recommended by Puchhar (magical physician) after examining the patients under the influence of spirit or under the anger of local deity. Some Tantra-Mantra and Taweez (Amulet) is also used to treat toothache, earache, scorpion stings and snakebite to protect from evil spirits. A large number of informants reported that most ailments were treated at a household level. The mode of treatment of diseases and dosage are also common among the sacred groves (Table 2). Most of the diseases are cured with the help of decoction, in the form of paste, powder, etc. of the plants. In Nakuleshwar sacred grove, the paste of Oxalis
corniculata is directly applied on cuts and wounds. Juice of Hedychium spicatum rhizome is taken as tonic in Haat Kali sacred grove. Pine resin of Pinus roxburghii is also applied at the side of the eye for curing redness in eyes. Sometime the mixture of several plant parts is used for the treatment of the diseases. For example, in Haat Kali sacred grove, Rawal community used the powder mixture of Viola canescens and Hedychium spicatum in cold, cough and asthma related problem and fresh Uritca dioca twig (bichhu buti) struck at the affected sides in sprains. 4.
Discussion In Kumaon Himalaya, the local communities are dependent upon their forest
resources such as fodder, fuel, agricultural tools, medicinal uses, household good, rituals programmes, etc. Dedicating the sacred grove to a particular deity has been practiced since long and it depends upon the beliefs of the local communities residing in that area. These groves are rich in medicinal plants and the knowledge among the communities is excellent through which they cure various diseases. On an average, significantly higher numbers of medicinal plants were claimed by illiterate men than women (30 men; 10 women; age group between 25 and 75 years). 11 respondents (10 men and 1 woman, aged between 60 and 75 years) constitute traditional plant practitioners (THP), whose tradition of healing practices are revered and trusted in the local community and play multiple roles as spiritual guides, counselors and healers. People, when found necessary, could consult other knowledgeable people in their respective local community with little or no charge. Remedy preparations often involved some sort of spiritual or ritual procedures. The knowledge about the medicinal plants is kept secret and is only transferred to their own generations, as also reported by other researchers (Giday et al., 2010; Sharma et al., 1992; Gedif and Hahn, 2002; Uniyal et al., 2006; Teklehaymanot, 2009; Panghal et al., 2010).
The plant families which are dominated within the identified seven groves are Asteraceae and Rosaceae both with 7 species, Rubiaceae, Berberidaceae and Polygonaceae with 4 species, Rutaceae and Lamiaceae 3 species, Acanthaceae, Fagaceae, Geraniacaeae, Apiaceae, Ranunculaceae, Lauraceae, Ericaceae, Moraceae with 2 species, Araceae, Hippatocastaceae, Caprifoliaceae, Aceraceae with 1 species, etc. While in Gymnosperm Pinaceae with 2 species, in Pteridophyta Adiantaceae with 3 species and in Lichen Parmeliaceae represent with 2 species and hence, indicates the good plant wealth in the groves. Similarly, herbs are used maximum for the treatment of diseases representing 51.11% while epiphytes are used minimum with 2.22%, while shrubs (16.66 %), trees (21.11%), climbers (8.88 %) by the local communities, which signifying the local people have immense knowledge of plants. The herbaceous species among the local communities could be result of their relative abundance as compared to trees, shrubs, climbers, and epiphytes as also witnessed by investigators. 55 plants species are showing maximum fidelity level of 100% and are frequently being used among the local communities for the treatment of various ailments. It is interesting to know that Cedrus deodara (Devdaru) showing 100% FL against gastrointestinal disorder, fever and dermatological disorder in the different sacred groves, indicates the importance of this sacred tree among the local people of studied sacred groves and thus, justify its name. Nearly 90% of informants reported that vertical transfer of medicinal plant knowledge was not taking place effectively due to lack of interest by the younger generation to learn and practice it mainly due to acculturation. Medicinal plants cited by informants (aged above 50 years) showed that elder men and illiterate people have better medicinal plant knowledge compared to younger generations, females and literate people. These observations correlates
well with studies conducted elsewhere (Sharma et al., 1992; Gedif and Hahn, 2003; Muthu and Ignacimuthu, 2005; Upadhyay et al., 2007; Panghal et al., 2010). Many treatments of the local communities in the sacred groves are common among the other part of world such as Bergenia ciliata for kidney stone and Rubia manjith for skin disease in Far-West Nepal (Kunwar et al., 2009), Origanum vulgare for toothache in Iran (Naghibi et al., 2005), Berberis asiatica for diabetes and Viola canescans for cold in Himachal Pradesh (Uniyal et al., 2006); Juglans regia for toothache, Taraxacum officinale for kidney and liver disorder and Viola canescens for cold, Ajuga bracteosa for jaundice in Pakistan (Ali et al., 2011). Similarly, the medicinal plants used for the same purpose by more than one community might indicate their pharmacological effectiveness. The ethnobotanical information collected from the local inhabitants of these sacred groves regarding their plant wealth also correlated with the reported pharmacological findings of these plants, such as, Asparagus racemosus for spermatorrhoea, also reported by Ghumare et al., 2004. Similarly, Aegle marmelos for gastric problem (Dhuley, 2007); Berberis aristata for diabetes (Mitra et al., 2011); Cedrus deodara for gastric problem (Kumar et al., 2011), Centella asiatica for skin diseases (Brinkhaus et al., 2000); Cinnamomum tamala as analgesic (Thamizhselvam et al., 2012), Hedychium spicatum for gastric problem (Srimal et al., 1984; Chaturvedi & Sharma, 1975); Solanum nigrum for liver disorders (Lina et al., 2008); Valeriana jatamansi for stomachache (Wagner and Juric, 1979); and Myrica esculentum for asthma (Chapal et al., 1999) have proved the depth of the traditional knowledge of the local communities of the sacred groves. The significance and importance of various plants having medicinal properties has also been reported by various areas of the Uttarakhand State (Table 2). In addition, 6 plant species are reported with new therapeutic uses including Equisetum arvense which is being used for the treatment of jaundice and may be a future remedy for liver disorders.
Sacred groves of Kumaon Himalayas are treasure house of many potential threatened medicinal plants, such as, Berberis aristata, Microstylis acuminata, Thalictrum foliolosum, Valeriana jatamansi, Taxus baccata, Hedychium spicatum, Paris pollyphylla (Samant et al., 1998; Pande et al., 2006; Arya 2006). Conservation and sustainable utilization of these potential plant drugs is important and the problem can be solved by conserving the sacred groves where the local people will take care of these important plants. These groves provide suitable habitat for the growth of rare, endangered and threatened medicinal plants and their sustainable natural regeneration. Sacred groves are the tracts of virgin forest that were left untouched by the local inhabitants, harbour rich biodiversity, and are protected by the local people due to their cultural and religious beliefs and taboos that the deities reside in them (Vartak et al., 1987). Local communities believe that the deity will punished them when they were taken a single leaf or a wood from the grove. Whenever the local people use plant from the grove, they take permission by collecting community or through panchayat (Singh et al., 2010 a; b). It is also evident from the Hokra forest, where the process of extracting the medicinal plants is now completely prohibited due to the loss of forest components and they were dedicating the whole forest to Hokra Devi for more than 20 years. Therefore, this approach of local communities is very useful for conserving and regeneration of large forest patches, which can be put into sustainable use for satisfying the people’s needs without burdening the ecosystem and maintaining its ecological integrity. 5. Conclusion This study reveals that the sacred groves in the Kumaon region of central Himalaya are rich sources of medicinal plants with many rare and threatened species. These are the best repository of medicinal plants which is not found abundantly elsewhere surrounding areas. It
is an excellent example of unique traditional way of in situ conservation which is an ideal provides indigenous practice of conservation for the modern world. Further, this documentation of the ethnomedicinal plants from the various sacred groves and the traditional knowledge of the indigenous people may open new vistas for future lead molecules /drugs for the humanity. There is an urgent need to set forth specific guidelines to safeguard sacred areas and promote traditional knowledge about conservation. This must involve the revitalization and enforcement of traditional education delineation of protective boundaries, improvement of relevant ecological knowledge, and official legal recognition of these factors (Negi, 2010). The social customs and management traditions techniques of local communities proved largely successful in the past and therefore have the potential to protect sacred groves in the future. Acknowledgements The authors are thankful to Director, CSIR-National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow to provide lab facilities and encouragement. The authors are also thankful to the local communities who shared their knowledge of plants and helped during the field survey. References Alcorn, J.B., 1996. Is biodiversity conserved by indigenous peoples? In: Jain, S.K., (Eds.), Ethnobiology in human Welfare. Deep publication New Dehli, India, pp. 234-238. Ali, H., Sannai, J., Sher, H., Rashid, A., 2011. Ethnobotanical profile of some plant resources in Malam Jabba valley of Swat, Pakistan. Journal of Medicinal Plants Research 5 (17), 4171-4180. Arya, K.R., Agarwal, S.C., 2006. Conservation of threatened medicinal and folklore plants through cultivation in Uttaranchal state. Ethnobotany 18, 77-86.
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Glossary Babhuti: a sacred ash. Jagar: Cultural-religious ceremony performed in the religious platform or ground to please the local deity and is held for one overnight Puchhar: a magical physician who is telling each and everything about the patient after examining the patients under the influence of spirit or under the anger of local deity by using piled rice. Sacred grove: Forest patches protected by local communities due to religious and spiritual beliefs system and they often represent the relict climax vegetation of the region.
Tantra-Mantra: Tantra is a divinely revealed body of teachings, explaining what is necessary and what is a hindrance in the practice of the worship of God; and also describing the specialized initiation and purification ceremonies that are the necessary prerequisites of Tantric practice. Mantra is a word or sound repeated to aid concentration in meditation. Taweez (Amulet): It can be any object but its most important characteristic is its alleged power to protect its owner from danger or harm. Potential amulets include gems, especially engraved gems, statues, coins, drawings, pendants, rings, plants and animals; even words in the form of a magical spell, incantation, to repel evil or bad luck.
Figure Captions Fig. 1. Location Map of Different Sacred Groves Fig. 2. Habit and Taxonomic Distribution of Medicinal Plants in the Sacred Groves A-Habit of Ethno-medicinal Plants B-Taxonomic Distribution of Ethno-medicinal Plants (A) Angiosperm, (G) Gymnosperm, (L) Lichen, and (P) Pteridophyte. Fig. 3. Plant Parts Used as Ethno-medicine
Table 1. Different sacred groves, their location, communities and forest vegetation.
S. Name of the Latitude/Longitude/Altitude Local communities No. Sacred grove Kapri 1. Dhwaj 29038'48.62" N 0 80 17'14.45" E 2200 m
2.
Haat Kali
29039'26.53" N 80002'50.47" E 1668 m
Rawal
3.
Hokra
Bisht, Mehra
4.
Malay Nath
30001'24.00" N 80005'03.20" E 1700 m 29048'03.03" N 80014'45.69" E 2000 m
5.
Nakuleshwar 29032'44.20" N 80013'40.68" E 1530 m
6.
Narayan Swami Ashram
29058'12.50" N 80039'18.56" E 2750 m
7.
Patal Bhuveshwar
29041'16.40" N 80005'38.61" E 1616 m
Chupal, Bora
Rajis
Locality
Forest Vegetation
Near Totanula about 10 km from Pithoragarh district Near Gangolihat Tehsil 75 km from Pithoragarh district Near Tejam, Nachani Near Sherakot, Didihat
Rhododendron arboreum, Quercus leucotrichophora, Viburnum cotonifolium Cedrus deodara, Rhododendron arboreum, Quercus leucotrichophora
Near Et goan Shilling village 10 km from Pithoragarh town Bhotia, Near Sesa Rajis, Boxa village, Tawaghat, Dharchula Rawal, Guro, Berinag Tehsil, Bhandari, near Bora Gangolihat
Cinnamomum tamala Rhododendron arboreum, Quercus leucotrichophora, Lyonia ovalifolia Acer oblongum, Cedrus deodara, Cinnamomum tamala, Coraria nepalensis Taxus baccata, Rhododendron arboreum, Cedrus deodara Cedrus deodara, Quercus leucotrichophora
Table 2. List of plants used in different sacred groves. Plant Name
Voucher
Family
Uses
No.
Par
Local
Early
t
name
reporte
use
d
d
literatur e from Uttarak hand
Angiosperm Acer
LWG-
oblongum
215205
Aceraceae
Contracepti
Leav
ve
es
Dysentery,
Fruit
Phatgal
Pande et al., 2006
Wall ex DC
Aegle
LWG-
marmelos (L.) 215213 Correa
Rutaceae
diarrhoea
Bel
Pande et al., 2006; Kumar et al., 2011; Uniyal and Shiva, 2005; Kala et
al., 2006; Mathur and Joshi 2013 Aesculus
LWG-
indica (Wall.
215268
Sapindaceae Wounds,
Seed
Pangar
cracks
Pande et al., 2006
ex Cambess.) Hook.
Ageratum
LWG-
conyzoids L.
262831
Asteraceae
Wound,
Leav
cuts
es
Fulania
Pande et al., 2006; Gaur, 1999
Ainsliaea
LWG-
Asteraceae
aptera DC.
262332
Ainsliaea
LWG-
Asterace
Colic,
latifolia (D.
215225
ae
fever,
Don) Schulz-
Stomachach Root
Karu-buti,
Pande et
e
Kauru
al., 2006
Ram-ban,
Pande et
Kauru
al.,
Root
cholera
2006;
Bip.
Gaur, 1999
Ajuga
LWG-
Lamiacea
Jaundice
Leav
Neelkanth,
Pande et
bracteosa
215244
e
es
ratpatia
al., 2006
Rhiz
Khaprya
Uniyal and Shiva, 2005
Kheruoa
Uniyal and Shiva, 2005
Kilmora
Kumari
Wall. ex Benth.
Arisaema
LWG-
jacquemontii
262923
Araceae
Snake bite
ome
Blume
Asparagus
LWG-
Asparagace
Tonic,
Rhiz
racemosus
262880
ae
spermatorrh
ome
Willd.
oea
Berberis
LWG-
Berberidace
Diabetes,
aristata DC.
215297
ae
eye
et al.,
complaints,
2011;
jaundice
Singh
Root
and Rawat, 2011; Kala et al., 2006 Berberis
LWG-
Berberidace
Diabetes,
asiatica
215295
ae
eye
et al.,
complaints
2006
Roxb. ex DC.
Root
Kilmora
Uniyal
Berberis
LWG-
Berberidace
Eye
chitria Buch.-
97334
ae
complaints
Root
Kingore
Uniyal and
Ham. ex
Shiva,
Lindl.
2005; Rawat and Jalal, 2011; Bhatt and Negi, 2006
Bergenia
LWG-
Saxifragace
Kidney
Rhiz
Patarchur/Pa Bhat et
ciliata (Haw.)
97358
ae
stone, fever
ome
sanbed
Sternb.
al., 2013; Negi and Chauhan 2009; Uniyal and Shiva, 2005; Singh and
Rawat, 2011
Bidens pilosa LWG-
Asteracea
Ear, eye
Aeri
L.
e
problem,
al
toothache
part
249885
Bistorta
LWG-
Polygonacea Dysentery
amplexicaulis
249898
e
Root
Araka-jhar
Pande et al., 2006
Kutrya
Pande et al., 2006
(D. Don) Greene
Boenninghaus LWG-
Rutacea
Toothache,
Leav
enia albiflora 215212
e
cuts
es
Pissumar
Singh and
(Hook.) Rchb.
Rawat,
ex Meisn.
2011
Centella
LWG-
Apiac
Skin
Leav
asiatica (L.)
262832
eae
diseases,
es
Urb.
tonic
Birmi
Gangwa r and Joshi, 2008; Uniyal and Shiva,
2005; Mathur and Joshi, 2013 Cinnamomun
LWG-
Laurace
tamala Nees
215229
ae
Cough, cold Stem
ex Eberm.
Cirsium
LWG-
Aster
wallichii DC.
249876
aceae
Dysentery
Tejpat
Singh
bark/
and
Leav
Rawat,
es
2011
Root
Kendeiya,
Pande et
Kateri
al., 2006; Gaur, 1999
Clematis
LWG-97372
buchananiana
Ranunc
Skin
Leav
ulaceae
diseases
es
Diarrhoea,
Leav
cuts,
es
Kanguli
Pande et al., 2006
DC.
Cotoneaster
LWG-
microphyllus
215211
Wall. ex
Rosaceae
Bhedra
Pande et al.,
wounds
2006;
Lindl.
Gaur, 1999
Cyathula
LWG-
tomentosa
249894
Acanthaceae Skin diseases
Leav
Letkura/Ket
Pande et
es
ari
al., 2006
(Roth ) Moq.
Cynodon
LWG-
dactylon (L.)
262924
Poaceae
Vomiting,
Root
Doob
jaundice,
Pers.
Pande et al., 2006
diuretic
Desmodium
LWG-
heterocarpon
262377
Fabaceae
Urinary
Leav
diseases
es
Sarivan
Pande et al., 2006
(L.) DC.
Dicliptera
LWG-
Acanthacea Wounds,
Leav
bupleuroides
249895
e
es
Nees
stomach
Kulartore
Singh and
problem
Rawat, 2011
Duchesnea
LWG-
indica
262327
Rosaceae
Stomach
Fruit
problem
s
Bhui Kaphal Gaur, 1999;
(Andrews)
Pande et
Focke
al., 2006
Fagopyrum
LWG-
Polygonacea Urinary
Leav
esculentum
262926
e
disorder
es
Moraceae
Dysentery,
Fruit
Ugal
Pande et al., 2006
Moench
Ficus palmata LWGForssk.
261618
digestion,
Bedu
Pant, 2010
constipation F. auriculata
LWG-
Lour.
249900
Flemingia
LWG-
strobilifera
215209
Moraceae
Stomachach Fruit
Timul
e, dysentery
Fabaceae
Pande et al., 2006
Rheumatic
Who
Salpani/Bha
Pande et
pain,
le
dula
al., 2006
(L.) W.T.
bronchial
plant
Aiton
diseases,
Khusari-gha
Pande et
tonic Galinsoga
LWG-
parviflora
249882
Asteraceae
Indigestion
Leav es
al., 2006
Cav.
Galium
LWG-
asperifolium
262967
Rubiaceae
Skin
Leav
diseases
es
Leswakuri
Pande et al.,
Wall.
2006; Gaur, 1999
G.
LWG-
rotundifolium
262928
Rubiaceae
L.
Bronchitis,
Leav
throat,
es
Jharjharia
Pande et al.,
tonsil,
2006;
wounds,
Gaur,
colic,
1999
jaundice Geranium
LWG-
Geraniaceae
Antiseptic,
Who
Bheel-jadhi
Kumar
ocellatum
262317
Cambess.
*G
LWG-
Geraniaceae
.wallichianum 262319
liver, fever,
le
et al.,
diuretic
plant
2011
Dysentery,
Who
Bhanda/Bhe
*earache
le
el-jadhi
D. Don ex
Singh and Rawat, 2011
plant
Sweet
Hedera
LWG-
nepalensis K.
215228
Araliaceae
Ulcer
Rhiz
Arambel
ome
Pande et al., 2006
Koch
Hedychium
LWG-
Zingiberace
Bronchitis,
Rhiz
spicatum
262907
ae
tonic,
ome
Vanhaldu
Uniyal and
Buch.-Ham.
gastric
Shiva,
ex Smith.
trouble,
2005;
liver
Semwal
disease
et al., 2010
Hypericum
LWG-
oblongifolium
215220
Hyperiaceae
Wounds,
Leav
Peoli,
Pande et
boils
es
Peniuli
al., 2006
Mothya
Pande et
Choisy
Ipomoea nil
LWG-
Convolvulac Skin
Who
(L.) Roth
262828
eae
le
diseases
al., 2006
plant Juglans regia
LWG-
Juglandacea
Skin
Stem
L. var.
262830
e
diseases,
bark/
and
toothache
Fruit
Shiva,
kumaonica
Akrot
DC.
Uniyal
2005; Singh and Rawat, 2011; Rawat and Jalal, 2011
Lepidium
LWG-
Brassicacea
Body
Leav
sativum L.
215233
e
swelling
es
Leucas lanata
LWG-
Lamiaceae
Wounds
Leav
Benth.
262339
Chandrasur
Pande et al., 2006
Pipswas
es
Singh and Rawat, 2011; Pande et al., 2006
Lindenbergia
LWG-
Scrophularia Skin
Who
grandiflora
249893
ceae
le
(Buch.-Ham.
disease
plant
Vasanta
Pande et al., 2006
ex D. Don) Benth.
*Lindera
LWG-
pulcherrima
215257
Lauraceae
*Skin
Leav
Cherry
Pande et
disease
es
Scabies,
Leav
Anyar,
Kumar
wounds,
es
Aiyar
et al.,
al., 2006
(Nees) Hook. f.
Lyonia
LWG-
ovalifolia
262335
Ericaceae
(Wall.) Drude
boils
2011
Mahonia
LWG-
Berberidace
Fever, skin
Stem
Baloo
Pande et
napaulensis
215254
ae
diseases,
Bark
kilmore
al., 2006
eye
/Roo
cataracts,
t
Hari-musali
Jalal et
DC.
diuretic Malaxis
LWG-
acuminata D.
97336
Orchidaceae
Bronchitis
Rhiz ome
al., 2008
Don
Melothria
LWG-
Cucurbitace
heterophylla
262902
ae
(Lour.) Cogn.
Cuts
Leav es
Gwal-kakri,
Pande et al., 2006
Myrica
LWG-
esculenta
215265
Myricaceae
Cough,
Fruit
diarrhoea,
/Ste
and
Buch.–Ham.
asthma,
m
Shiva,
ex D. Don
dysentery
bark
2005;
Khaphal
Uniyal
Pande et al., 2006 Myrsine
LWG-
Myrsinaceae
Colic,
Fruit
Gaunta
Pande et
semiserrata
21528
menstral
al.,
Wall.
1
disoder
2006; Gaur, 1999
Origanum
LWG-
vulgare L.
21526
Lamiaceae
Cough,
Leav
toothache
es
Van tulsi
Uniyal and
4
Shiva, 2005; Singh and Rawat, 2011
Oxalis
LWG-
corniculata L. 26232 3
Oxalidaceae
Wounds,
Who
Chilmori
Pande et
scurvy,
le
al.,
jaundice
plant
2006; Mathur and Joshi,
2013 Paris
LWG-
polyphylla
26291
Smith
9
Peperomia
LWG-
tetraphylla
26286
(Forst. f.)
5
Melanthiaceae
Piperaceae
Stomach
Rhiz
Mithi-bach,
Pande et
problems
ome
Satwa
al., 2006
Wounds,
Who
Tirpirya
Pande et
burns
le
al., 2006
plant
Hook. & Arn.
Pimpinella
LWG-
diversifolia
24986
problem,
DC.
9
cold, cough
Prinsepia
LWG-
utilis Royle
26230
trouble,
and
5
burns, cuts,
Rawat,
wounds
2011
Pyracantha
LWG-
crenulata (D.
26238
Don) M.
3
Apiaceae
Rosaceae
Rosaceae
Stomach
Stomach
Constipatio
Fruit
Teroi,
Kumar
Phoree
et al., 2011
Fruit
Fruit
Bhekal
Ghingaru
n
Singh
Pande et al., 2006
Roem.
*Quercus
LWG-
leucotrichoph
26291
Fagaceae
*Energetic,
Stem
bronchial
bark/
Banj
Pande et al., 2006
ora A. Camus
5
problem,
resin
stomachach e Q.
LWG-
semecarpifoli
26291
a Smith
4
Ranunculus
LWG-
arvensis L.
26230
Fagaceae
Ranunculaceae
Cuts,
Leav
wounds
es
Fever, skin
Who
diseases
le
al.,
plant
2006;
2
Kharsu
Pande et al., 2006
Chambul
Pande et
Gaur, 1999 Reinwardtia
LWG-
indica
215243
Linaceae
Wounds
Leav
Pyoli
es
Pande et al., 2006
Dumort.
*Rhododendr
LWG-
on arboreum
262336
Ericaceae
Smith
*Blood
Flow
purifier
ers
Buras
Kumar et al., 2011
Manjit/Khu
Pande et
dera
al., 2006
Van hisalo
Pande et
stomach problem,
Rubia manjith LWGRoxb. ex
Rubiaceae
249872
Fever,
Root
jaundice,
Fleming
skin diseases
Rubus
LWG-
Rosaceae
Diarrhoea
Fruit
biflorus
262929
al.,
Buch.-Ham.
2006;
ex Smith
Gaur, 1999
R. ellipticus
LWG-
Smith
215221
Rosaceae
Diarrhoea,
Fruit
Hisalo
dysentery,
Pande et al., 2006
constipation , vomiting R. niveus
LWG-
Rosaceae
Stomachach Fruit
Kaloo hisalu Pande et
Thunb.
261621
Rumex
LWG-
Polygonacea Scurvy
Leav
Khatta-
Pande et
hastatus D.
249897
e
es
meetha,
al., 2006
e
al., 2006
Bhilmora
Don
R . nepalensis
LWG-
Polygonacea Stomach
Spreng.
215278
e
Root
Jangli-palak
Pande et
trouble,
al.,
scurvy
2006; Gaur, 1999
Smilax aspera LWGL.
215238
Solanum
LWG-
nigrum L.
249891
Smilacaceae
Skin
Root
Kukurdara
diseases
Solanaceae
al., 2006
Liver tonic, Leav skin
Pande et
es/
Makoi
Bisht and
diseases,
Fruit
Bhatt,
fever
s
2012; Kala et al., 2006
Spermadictyo
LWG-
n suaveolens
249874
Rubiaceae
Roxb.
Diarrhoea,
Leav
cholera,
es
Padar
Gaur, 1999;
wounds
Pande et al., 2006
*Swertia
LWG-
Gentianacea
*Fever,
cordata
215218
e
blood
(Wall. ex G.
Root
Chirata
Pande et al., 2006
purifier
Don) Clarke
Taraxacum
LWG-
officinale
249889
Asteraceae
Liver
Root
Kanphul
trouble,
Webb
Pande et al., 2006
kidney problem
Thalictrum
LWG-
Ranunculac
Fever,
foliolosum
97346
eae
leucoderma,
DC.
Root
Mamiri/Mak Uniyal and kar ghas Shiva, 2005; Pande et al., 2006; Gaur, 1999
Leav
Chatkura
toothache, diuretic
Urena lobata
LWG-
L.
97354
Malvaceae
Diuretic
es
Pande et al., 2006
Urtica dioica
LWG-
L.
262345
Urticaceae
Swelling
Aeri
Bhichu-
Pande et
al
ghas/sin
al., 2006
Sameo
Uniyal
part Valeriana
LWG-
Valerianace
Stomachach Rhiz
jatamansi
215256
ae
e
ome
and
Jones
Shiva, 2005
Viburnum
LWG-
Caprifoliace
cotinifolium
249870
ae
Viola
LWG-
Violaceae
canescens
262314
Digestive
Leav
Ghinua
es
Pant, 2010
D. Don
Wall.
Cold,
Who
cough,
le
et al.,
fever,
plant
2010;
Banafsha
jaundice
Tiwari
Singh and Rawat, 2011; Pande et al., 2006
Zanthoxylum
LWG-
armatum DC.
215253
Rutaceae
Cold ,
Seed
Timur
Uniyal
toothache
s/
and
Stem
Shiva, 2005;
Semwal et al., 2010; Singh and Rawat, 2011 Gymnosperm Cedrus
LWG-
deodara
262854
Pinaceae
Scabies,
Stem
Deyar,
Kala
fever,
bark
devdar
2007
Leaves
Chir
Pande et
(Roxb.)
dysentery
Loud.
, urinary disorder, ulcer
Pinus
LWG-
roxburghii
262856
Pinaceae
Boil
al., 2006
Sarg.
Taxus
LWG-
baccata L.
262855
Taxaceae
Cold
Stem
Thuner
bark
Pande et al., 2006
Pteridophyte Adiantum
LW
capillusveneris L.
Adiantaceae
Cough,
Whole
G-
mouth
plant
2629
blisters,
Hansraj
Pande et al., 2006
56
eye diseases, fever, bronchitis , menstrual complaint
Adiantum
LW
lunulatum Burm. f.
Adiantaceae
Fever,
Whole
G-
asthma,
plant
2629
cough
Dun-sink
Pande et al., 2006
48 Adiantum
LW
venustum
G-
D. Don
2629
Adiantaceae
Cough,
Whole
Kalo
Pande et
fever
plant
Hansraj
al., 2006
34 *Equisetum
LW
arvense L.
G-
Equisetaceae
*Jaundice Aerial
Jor-ka-tora
part
2616 14 Lichen LWG-09-011326 Parmeli Everniastru
aceae
Cold
Thallus
Jhulla/Chadi Chandra lla
and
m
Singh,
cirrhatum
1971
(Fr.) Hale
Parmotrem
LWG-09-011343 Parmeli
a reticulatum (Taylor) M.Choisy
* New Reports
aceae
Cold
Thallus
Jhulla/Chadi Singh et lla
al., 2012
Table 3. Category of ailments and their informant consensus factor (ICF) Category (diseases and
Plant species
Use reports
disoders)
Informant consensus factor (ICF)
Gastro-intestinal
disorder 27
38
0.29
(colic, cholera, digestion, dysentry,
stomachache,
constipation, vomiting) Jaundice
7
10
0.33
Fever
14
20
0.32
(bronchitis, 15
20
0.26
52
0.29
15
0.28
12
0.36
14
0.23
Respiratory
cold, cough, asthma) Dermatological
disorder 37
(cuts, wounds, boils, foot cracks, burns) General health (tonic, blood 11 purification, ulcer, scurvy, energetic) Urological problem (kidney 8 stone, diuretic) Body pains (toothache, ear, 11 eye diseases, swelling) Snake bite
1
3
-
Liver
5
10
0.55
Table 4. Fidelity level (FL) of ethnomedicinal plants of the study area. Illness categories Gastro-intestinal
Plants with fidelity level (FL) disorder Aegle marmelos (100%), Ainsliaea aptera (100%), A. latifolia
(colic, chlorea, digestion, (25%), Bistorta amplexicaulis (100%), Cedrus deodara dysentry,
stomachache, (100%), Cirsium wallichii (50%), Cotoneaster microphyllus
constipation, vomitting)
(60%), Cynodon dactylon (100%), Dicliptera bupleuroides (50%), Duchesnea indica (71.42%), Ficus palmata (100%), F. auriculata (66.66%), Galinsoga parviflora (100%), Geranium wallichianum (100%), Hedychium spicatum (50%), Myrica esculanta (66.66%), Paris polyphylla (100%), Pimpinella diversifolia (100%),, Prinsepia utilis (100%), Quercus leucotrichophora (25%), Rhododendron arboreum (66.66%), Rubus biflorus (100%), R. ellipticus (100%), R. niveus (100%) Rumex nepalensis (50%), Spermadictyon suaveolens (50%), Valeriana jatamansi (50%), Viburnum cotinifolium (50%).
Jaundice
Ajuga bracteosa (100%), Berberis asiatica (33.34%), Cynodon dactylon
(100%),
Equisetum
arvense
(100%),
Oxalis
corniculata (25%), Rubia manjith (25%), Viola canescens (33.33%) Fever
Adiantum capillus-veneris (33.34%), A. lunulatum (37.5%), A. venustum (75%), Ainsliaea latifolia (50%), Bergenia ciliata (75%), Cedrus deodara (100%), Geranium ocellatum (25%), Mahonia napaulensis (50%), Ranunculus arvensis (50%), Rubia manjith (75%), Solanum nigrum (20%), Swertia cordata (100%), Thalictrum foliolosum (100%), Viola canescens
(100%). Respiratory
(bronchitis, Adiantum capillus-veneris (11.11%), A. lunulatum (37.5%),
cold, cough, asthma)
Cinnamomum tamala (100%), Hedychium spicatum (50%), Malaxis acuminata (100%), Myrica esculentum (33.33%), Origanum vulgare (100%), Pimpnella diversifolia (50%), Quercus leucotrichophora (25%), Taxus baccata (50%), Viola canescens
(66.66%),
Zanthoxylum
armatum
(50%),
Parmotrema reticulatum (100%), Everniastrum cirrhatum (100%) Dermatological
disorder Adiantum lunulatum (12.5%), Aesculus indica (100%),
(cuts, wounds, boils, foot Ageratum conyzoides (100%), Arisaema jacquemontii (50%), cracks, burns)
Boenninghausenia albiflora (25%), Cedrus deodara (100%), Centella asiatica (100%), Clematis buchananina (100%), Cotoneaster microphyllus (40%), Cyathula tomentosa (100%), Dicliptera bupleuroides (100%), Duchesnia indica (28.57%), Ficus palmata (33.34%), F. auriculata (66.66%), Galinsago parviflora
(100%),
Galium
asperifolium
(100%),
G.
rotundifolium (100%), Hypericum oblongifolium (100%), Ipomoea nil (100%), Juglans regia (16.66%), Leucas lanata (100%), Lindenbergia glandiflora (50%), Lyonia ovalifolia (100%), Lindera pulcherrima (100%), Mahonia napaulensis (100%), Melothria heterophylla (100%), Oxalis corniculata (25%), Peperomia tetraphylla (50%), Pinus roxburghii (100%), Prinsepia utilis (100%), Quercus semecarpifolia (100%),
Ranunculus arvensis (50%), Rubuia manjith (50%), Smilax aspera (33.34%), Solanum nigrum (60%), Spermadictyon suaveolens (100%), Thalictrum foliolosum (50%). General
health
(tonic, Asparagus racemosus (80%), Centella asiatica (50%),
blood purification, ulcer, Desmodium heterocarpon (50%), Dicliptera bupleuroides scurvy, energetic)
(50%), Hedera nepalensis (100%), Hedychium spicatum (100%), Oxalis corniculata (50%), Quercus leucotrichophora (50%), Rhododendron arboreum (100%), Rumex nepalensis (25%), Swertia cordata (50%).
Urological problem (kidney Adiantum stone, diuretic)
venustum
(25%),
Ainsliea
aptera
(33.34%),
Desmodium heterocarpon (100%), Fagopyrum esculentum (100%), Geranium ocellatum (25%), Taraxacum officinale (100%), Thalictrum foliolosum (100%), Urena lobata (100%).
Body pains (toothache, ear, Adiantum capillus-veneris (11.11%), Berberis aristata (100%), eye diseases, swelling)
B. asiatica (100%), B. chitria (100%), Bidens pilosa (100%), Boenninghausenia albiflora (75%), Geranium wallichianum (100%), Juglans regia var. kumaonica (83.33%), Mahonia napaulensis (50%), Thalictrum foliolosum (50%), Urtica dioica (50%).
Snakebite
Arisaema jacquemontii (-)
Liver problem
Eclipta alba (50%), Geranium ocellatum (25%), Hedychium spicatum (50%), Solanum nigrum (60%), Taraxacum officinale (66.66%).
Figure
Figure
Figure