African American women's safer sexual practices: the influence of ethnic-racial socialisation and body esteem.

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African American women’s safer sexual practices: the influence of ethnic-racial socialisation and body esteem a

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c

Danice L. Brown , Traice Webb-Bradley , Pamela Denise Cobb , a

Devon Spaw & Kacee N. Aldridge

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Department of Psychology, Southern Illinois University Edwardsville, Edwardsville, USA

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United Behavioral Health St. Louis Care Advocacy Center, St. Louis, USA c

Department of Sociology and Criminal Justice Studies, Southern Illinois University Edwardsville, Edwardsville, USA Published online: 21 Mar 2014.

To cite this article: Danice L. Brown, Traice Webb-Bradley, Pamela Denise Cobb, Devon Spaw & Kacee N. Aldridge (2014) African American women’s safer sexual practices: the influence of ethnicracial socialisation and body esteem, Culture, Health & Sexuality: An International Journal for Research, Intervention and Care, 16:5, 518-532, DOI: 10.1080/13691058.2014.891048 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13691058.2014.891048

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Culture, Health & Sexuality, 2014 Vol. 16, No. 5, 518–532, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13691058.2014.891048

African American women’s safer sexual practices: the influence of ethnic-racial socialisation and body esteem Danice L. Browna*, Traice Webb-Bradleyb, Pamela Denise Cobbc, Devon Spawa and Kacee N. Aldridgea a

Department of Psychology, Southern Illinois University Edwardsville, Edwardsville, USA; bUnited Behavioral Health St. Louis Care Advocacy Center, St. Louis, USA; cDepartment of Sociology and Criminal Justice Studies, Southern Illinois University Edwardsville, Edwardsville, USA


(Received 7 March 2013; accepted 31 January 2014) African American women are disproportionately at risk for sexually transmitted infections (e.g., HIV and gonorrhoea). It is important therefore to explore cultural factors that may influence their sexual practices. The present study examined the relationship between safer sexual practices (i.e., using condoms and inquiring about partner sexual history), participants’ ethnic-racial socialisation experiences with maternal and paternal caregivers, and body esteem. Participants were 262, largely middle-class, African American women (ages 18 to 78) from a Midwestern US city who completed an online questionnaire. Results indicated significant differences on measures of safer sexual practice based on relationship status. Regression results suggested that certain paternal cultural practices were negatively related to inquiring about a partner’s sexual history. However, body esteem was positively associated with inquiry regarding partner’s previous sexual history. Implications for intervention efforts and research are discussed. Keywords: culture; sexual health; African American women; body image; USA

Although the sexual practices and sexual socialisation of African American women have received increased attention, further exploration of cultural factors influencing their sexual practices is needed (Nguyen et al. 2010; Thomas, Crook, and Cobia 2009; Townsend 2008; Wyatt 1997). African American women, across relationship statuses, are disproportionately at increased risk for HIV and sexually transmitted diseases such as syphilis, gonorrhoea and Chlamydia in comparison to European American women and women of Latin American descent (CDC 2010; Jemmot et al. 1995; St. Lawrence et al. 1998; Wyatt 1997). The increase in HIV rates among African American women has largely been linked to unprotected heterosexual sex (CDC 2010). Previous research has discussed risk factors such as sexual intercourse with heterosexual men who engage in risky sexual activities (e.g., unprotected sex with multiple partners) and intercourse with behaviourally bisexual men who engage in unprotected sexual behaviours with men and do not disclose such behaviours, also referred to as ‘being on the down-low’ (Millet et al. 2005, 52). The US Centers for Disease Control has predicted that 1 in 30 African American women will be diagnosed with HIV at some point in her lifetime (CDC 2010). Studies have examined varied explanations for the frightening statistics found among African American women. The present study sought to add to the literature by exploring the possible influence of sociocultural factors on the safer sexual practices of African American women.

*Corresponding author. Email: [email protected] q 2014 Taylor & Francis


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Authors note that US society’s narrowly-defined gender roles, which ascribe more control to men, and the power dynamics in heterosexual relationships may influence women of all ethnic-racial backgrounds. These roles and relationships may lead women to adopt more passive and submissive roles in relationships. In turn, this submissive behaviour may decrease the likelihood of a woman self-advocating for safer sexual practices with a male partner (DePadilla et al. 2011). Bowleg, Lucas and Tschann (2004) found that African American women in committed heterosexual relationships may have difficulties asserting themselves regarding the sexual practices that take place in their intimate relationships. Sexual assertiveness is essential for communicating ones intimacy needs and discussing safer sex behaviours (e.g., condom use: Morokoff et al. 1997). Many of the women in the study felt that they had little to no control over their sexual activity and safer-sex practices in relationships, and some viewed infidelity as a normative aspect of the relationship (Bowleg, Lucas, and Tschann 2004). Marriage may not provide a safeguard from infidelity. While marriage conveys a formal commitment of monogamy from both partners, research suggests that this protection is not guaranteed. Among African Americans, men may be more likely to have extramarital affairs than women, thus putting their partners at risk (Choi, Catania, and Dolcini 1994). African American women may be less likely to negotiate safer-sex practices with partners out of fear that that this suggestion may undermine the expected trust and commitment within the relationship, thus putting themselves at risk for contracting HIV and other STIs (St. Lawrence et al. 1998). Some women may generally feel uncomfortable discussing issues of sexuality and sexual practices. Within the African American community, women may receive messages suggesting that discussions of sex and sexuality are taboo, immoral and inappropriate (Jackson and Greene 2000). These factors may particularly be linked to the rise in HIV among older African American women (Winningham et al. 2004). In addition, the worldview of African American women, similar to other women, is greatly influenced by standards of beauty and the emphases placed on women’s physical attractiveness (Frisby 2004). Research suggests that negative self-perceptions of body image may influence a woman’s self-confidence and romantic relationships, resulting in unhealthy behaviours (Frisby 2004), thus the relative influence of body image also warrants examination. Lastly, many African American women are exposed to racialised stereotypes that portray them as oversexed, inferior and sexually promiscuous (Ross and Coleman 2011). Such impressions may negatively impact their identity development and ego strength, which in turn may influence their sexual development, their perceptions of sexual practices and their overall comfort with discussing sex-related issues (Jackson and Greene 2000; Stephens and Few 2007; Townsend 2008; Wyatt 1997). In order to understand the antecedents to the poor sexual health statistics found among African American women and develop effective intervention and prevention strategies, it is essential to examine the various sociocultural factors that may influence the meaning that African American women derive regarding their sexuality (Thomas, Crook, and Cobia 2009; Townsend 2008; Wyatt 1997). This understanding is necessary in order to grasp how cultural and societal attitudes may affect their sexual behaviour (Longmore 1998). Given the importance of ethnic-racial identity and the connection African American women have to their families and communities, it may be important to examine the influence of the ethnic-racial socialisation process.


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Ethnic-racial socialisation As a result of the historical patterns of racial discrimination faced by African Americans and the current status of racial inequality, African American families may have the additional challenge of educating young people about issues of race and racial oppression (Stevenson et al. 2002). Research suggests that the process of ethnic-racial socialisation may be an integral part of African American families and communities (Hughes et al. 2006; McHale et al. 2006). Ethnic-racial socialisation may involve messages and practices that teach African American youth how to successfully negotiate racially oppressive and sometimes hostile environments, while having pride in their cultural heritage (Thomas and King 2007). African American families may vary in the content and frequency of the messages provided. Additionally, the distinction between racial and ethnic socialisation among African Americans may be particularly complex as a result of race relations in the USA (Hughes et al. 2006). Numerous socialisation themes have appeared in the literature (e.g., messages involving preparation for racial bias), however, cultural socialisation has emerged more often in the literature (Hughes et al. 2006). Cultural socialisation involves caregiver practices that educate African American youth about their cultural heritage (e.g., slavery and civil rights), embeds them in African and African American values and traditions and focuses on instilling ethnic-racial pride (Hughes et al. 2006). Promotion of cultural pride and traditions has been found to be a salient aspect of African American parental practices. The National Survey of Black Americans (NSBA: Jackson and Gurin 1997) found that in a nationally representative sample of African American adults, approximately 40% noted that they included child-rearing practices that addressed racial pride and heritage. Additionally, studies suggest that African American families may frequently expose young people to culturally relevant art, books and media (Hughes et al. 2006), a practice referred to as cultural embeddedness (Brown and Krishnakumar 2007). Research has linked cultural socialisation to positive self-esteem, academic achievement, positive psychosocial functioning (Caughy et al. 2002) and overall resiliency (Brown and Tylka 2011) in African American youth and adults. When faced with the task of providing socialisation for African American girls, African American families may adjust their messages to address issues specific to the sociocultural experience of African American women (i.e., racial and gender identity concerns: Thomas and Speight 1999). Thomas and Speight found that in addition to giving messages to their daughters regarding racial pride, parents reported giving messages encouraging acceptance of their physical beauty, maintaining their independence and avoiding pre-marital sex. In examining the socialisation of African American girls, the literature has largely focused on the socialisation provided by mothers and the interpersonal nature of the mother-daughter relationship (e.g., Edmonson-Bell and Nkomo 1998; Thomas and King 2007; Thomas and Speight 1999; Townsend 2008). Mothers may be more likely than fathers to provide youth with ethnic-racial socialisation (Frabutt, Walker, and MacKinnon-Lewis 2002) and may have a crucial role in protecting their daughters from the deleterious impact of the multiple oppressions they face (Edmonson-Bell and Nkomo 1998; Jones and Shorter-Gooden 2003). In a recent study regarding mother-daughter dyads, results indicated that African American mothers provided their daughters with specific messages about self-determination and assertiveness, self-pride, respect and equality for others, male-female relationships, spirituality and religion, racial pride and cultural heritage (Thomas and King 2007). Mothers expressed a desire to make their daughters aware that they were not limited by their race and gender and to reflect an image of African American women as strong and capable (Thomas



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and King 2007). However, while there has been some exploration of the mother-daughter process of socialisation, we know little about the socialisation process between paternal caregivers and African American women. This is an important area to explore as paternal caregivers may influence the self-concept and psychological well-being of African American women (McHale et al. 2006). Still, ethnic-racial socialisation practices may aid African American women in developing a sense of self-pride and positive racial identity, which could play a pivotal role in their sexual development. The growing literature on ethnic-racial identity and pride suggests that strong ethnic pride may serve as a protective factor promoting well-being and less sexual risk-taking behaviour among African American women (Beadnell et al. 2003). For example, in a prevention programme with African American families, Murray and colleagues (2007) found that racial socialisation from parents was linked to positive racial identity and self-esteem among adolescents, which, in turn, decreased the likelihood of early engagement in sexual activity and risky sexual behaviour. Thus, the positive racial socialisation experiences African American women have as young people may serve to protect or improve their sense of worth and esteem later in life and may be linked to safer sex practices (DePadilla et al. 2011; Murray et al. 2007). Body esteem Women are confronted daily with images that reflect societal standards of beauty and physical attractiveness (Frisby 2004). Research suggests that continued exposure to such images can influence body esteem and a woman’s evaluation of her body (Franzoi and Shields 1984), resulting in dissatisfaction with body image and low self-confidence, which have been linked to unhealthy behaviours (e.g., disordered eating: Auslander, Baker, and Short 2012). Studies examining physical attractiveness among African American women have often focused on the influence of and desire for more Eurocentric features (e.g., lighter skin, slimmer body size: Townsend et al. 2010). Comparison studies of African American and European American women indicate that they may hold differing ideas of physical attractiveness, with African American women being less concerned with weight or thinness (Frisby 2004). However, among African American women, social class may be a mediating factor regarding ideals of physical attractiveness. Low-income African American women may be less influenced by European American cultural standards of beauty and less concerned with thinness than middle-and upper- class African American women (Parker et al. 1995). While some African American women may not be affected by European American images, they may be influenced by images of ethnically similar women. Frisby (2004) found that for African American women, being presented with idealised images of other African American women may result in lowered levels of body satisfaction. Generally, all women are socialised to focus on maintaining an attractive appearance for potential partners, leading them to be increasingly aware of how they are perceived by others, especially sexual partners (Stephens and Few 2007). Given the influential role physical appearance has on women’s experiences of their sexuality, body esteem may impact women’s sexual practices (Auslander, Baker, and Short 2012). Although most studies examining the relationship between body satisfaction and sexual practices have been conducted with adolescent girls, many studies suggest that women who are more dissatisfied with their body image are more likely to engage in risky sexual practices (Woertman and van den Brink 2012). Wingood and colleagues (2002) found that among a sample of young African American women (ages 14 to 18), body

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dissatisfaction was associated with increased likelihood of participating in unprotected sexual encounters. Littleton, Breitkopf and Berenson (2005) utilised a wider age range (ages 12 to 56) and found that among a tri-ethnic sample of women (African American, Caucasian and Hispanic), poor body image increased the likelihood of having multiple sex partners, inconsistent condom use and having sex after using a substance. Researchers suggest that women with body image concerns believe they have limited options for sexual partners and may fear abandonment by partners for attempting to negotiate safer-sex practices. Additionally, they may question their right to insist on sexual protection (Auslander, Baker, and Short 2012; Woertman and van den Brink 2012). Thus, further exploration into the influence of body esteem on the safer sexual practices of African American women is necessary. Present study Presently, there are several studies examining the sexual practices of African American youth and adolescent samples. While this prevalence is warranted given the extensive growth of HIV cases among this group (CDC 2010), understanding the safer sexual practices of African American women is also relevant as rates of HIV among this population continue to rise (Grant and Ragsdale 2008). Few studies have accounted for the impact of race and gender related sociocultural factors, such as ethnic-racial socialisation and body esteem among African American women. As ethnic-racial identity and cultural pride remain important across the developmental lifespan (Parham 1989), a retrospective examination of the influence of ethnic-racial socialisation among African American woman may provide insight into the way in which they have come to understand this socialisation process as adults and how it may subsequently influence their safer-sex behaviours. More importantly, while there has been a focus on the socialisation provided by mothers, more research examining the socialisation provided to women by fathers is imperative (Peterson 2006). Male family members have been found to influence African American girl’s attitudes toward sexuality (Stephens and Few 2007). The limited attention given to fathers in the research may hinder the development of effective interventions aimed at reducing the negative health consequences associated with sexual risk (Peterson 2006). Additionally, most studies examining the influence of African American women’s body image on sexuality and mental health have focused on comparisons to European American standards of beauty. However, studies indicate that some African American women may not make such comparisons regarding their body image. Beyond relative comparisons, examining how satisfaction with one’s body may influence the safer sexual practices of African American women may provide additional insight into the predicted relationship between safer sexual practices and body esteem. Based on previous literature highlighting the benefits and positive outcomes associated with cultural socialisation, in particular cultural pride and cultural embeddedness (e.g., Brown and Tylka 2011), and the link found between body esteem and safer sexual practices (e.g., Auslander, Baker, and Short 2012), the present study sought to add to the literature by examining the relationship between ethnic-racial socialisation from paternal and maternal caregivers, body esteem and safer sexual practices among African American women. Specifically, two hierarchical multiple regressions were conducted to assess the relative influence of paternal caregiver ethnic-racial socialisation practices (i.e., cultural embeddedness and ethnic pride), maternal caregiver ethnic-racial socialisation practices (i.e., cultural embeddedness and ethnic pride) and body esteem on participants’ self-reported safer sexual practices (i.e., condom use and inquiry of


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partners sexual history). Relationship status and age were added as covariates in the study. As previously noted, African American women in committed relationships may not engage in preventative practices as a result of concerns regarding expected monogamy (Bowleg, Lucas, and Tschann 2004). Additionally, previous research suggests a curvilinear relationship between age and sexual risk, with younger and older individuals increasingly engaging in sexually risky behaviours (Nguyen et al. 2010). The present study hypothesised that a higher frequency of reported ethnic-racial socialisation practices received from both maternal and paternal caregivers would directly predict participants’ safer sexual practices. Additionally, similar positive relationship between body esteem and participant’s level of safer sexual practices was anticipated.


Methods Participants and procedure Participants were first solicited via an email sent to African American student organisations on a mid-sized college campus in a Midwestern city in the USA. As a result of obtaining a very small number of participants (n ¼ 10), an email was subsequently sent to a community listserv that caters to the local African American community. The listserv sends out advertisements for community and arts events as well as recruitment advertisements for programs and research hosted by local universities in the same Midwestern city. The email solicitation directed potential participants to an online Internet questionnaire, hosted by SurveyMonkey, an Internet survey software company. Participants were ensured of their anonymity. After completing the survey, participants were given the option of entering a lottery drawing to win an Apple iPad 2. Surveys were screened for duplicate copies by examining the origin of submission (i.e., IP addresses). No duplicates were found. Participants who did not identify as Black/African American (n ¼ 4) or a woman (n ¼ 2) were not included in the data set. Additionally, 11 participants were removed due to their questionnaires being less than 75% complete. The final convenience sample consisted of 262 African American women, ranging in age from 18 to 78 (M ¼ 38.98, SD ¼ 13.64). The majority identified solely as African American/Black (97.7%). A small minority of participants (1.9%) identified as Biracial (i.e., African American and another ethnicity such as White, American Indian and Caribbean/West Indian). The majority of participants identified as heterosexual (92.0%). When asked about relationship status, participants reported that they were single (32.8%), in a committed, non-marital relationship (18.3%), married (26.0%), divorced (11.5%), separated (1.5%), widowed (.8%) or did not give a relationship status (9.2%). Approximately half of respondents indicated they had a first degree or higher. The majority of the sample reported that they were middle class (54.2%). The remaining participants indicated that they were working class (31.7%), upper-middle class (11.8%) and upper class (0.4%) or did not indicate their socioeconomic status (1.9%). The median family income level for this sample was in the range of $50,000 to $74, 999 and most participants (29%) were in this range.

Measures Demographic questionnaire A brief questionnaire was included requesting participants’ age, ethnic identification and gender. Additionally, the survey asked participants to indicate their relationship status

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(e.g., single, married, committed relationship etc.), highest level of education completed, family income level and social economic status.


Safer sexual practices Safer sexual practices were assessed using the Safe Sex Behaviour Questionnaire (SSBQ: Dilorio et al. 1992). The questionnaire consists of 27 items designed to measure frequency of use of recommended safer-sex practices. Of the items, 17 are worded positively and 10 are worded negatively. Participants were asked to indicate the degree to which they used the practices listed on a 4-point Likert scale ranging from Never (1) to Always (4). Total scores could range from 27 to 108, with higher scores reflecting safer sex behaviour. Dilorio et al. (1992) reported a Cronbach’s alpha of .82 with a college freshman sample for the total 27-item scale, demonstrating its internal reliability. The SSBQ has also been found to demonstrate construct validity based on factor analysis and hypothesis testing (Dilorio et al. 1993). In order to ensure that we were utilising a relevant construct in the analysis of safer sexual practices among African American women, an exploratory factor analysis was conducted with the 27 items of the original scale. The number of factors was determined by eigenvalues above 1.0 and a noticeable change in the slope within the scree-plot (Tabachnick and Fidell 1996). The pattern matrix was examined to pinpoint items that exhibited the largest loading on each factor. Three relevant factors were identified. These factors accounted for a total of 37.6% of the variance. The first factor, Condom Use, consisted of six items that focused on participants’ insistence that their partner use a condom during sexual intercourse and includes statements that suggest they have plan for practicing safer sex (e.g., If I know an encounter may lead to sexual intercourse, I carry a condom). The second factor, Partner Sexual History, consisted of seven items that addressed participants’ tendency to ask potential partners about their sexual past and the partners views on safer sexual practices (e.g., I abstain from sexual intercourse when I do not know my partner’s sexual history). The final factor, Sexual Permissiveness, consisted of three items that addressed participants’ tendency to be more lackadaisical in their safer-sex practices (e.g., If swept away in the passion of the moment, I have sexual intercourse without using a condom). Two of the three factors demonstrated adequate internal consistency, with Cronbach’s alphas of .88 (Condom Use) and .84 (Partners Sexual History), respectively. This final factor, Sexual Permissiveness, had low internal consistency, with a Cronbach’s alpha of .55. For this reason, Sexual Permissiveness was not included in the analyses. Ethnic-racial socialisation. Ethnic-racial socialisation was assessed retrospectively using the Adolescent Racial and Ethnic Socialisation Scale (ARESS: Brown and Krishnakumar 2007). The ARESS is 35-item scale designed to measure behavioural examples of racial and ethnic socialisation messages received separately from maternal and paternal caregivers. The ARESS uses a 4-point Likert scale response, ranging from Never (1) to Always (4). Each subscale score is the total of the items within that subscale, with higher scores indicating more racial or ethnic socialisation messages received from either maternal or paternal caregivers. There are nine subscales measuring aspects of racial and ethnic socialisation (i.e., racial barrier awareness coping with racism and discrimination; promotion of cross racial relationships; African American cultural values; African American cultural embeddedness, African American history; African American heritage; and ethnic pride). Brown and Krishnakumar (2007) reported that all subscales exhibited adequate reliability for maternal (a ¼ .63 –.95) and paternal caregivers


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(a ¼ .83 –.95). While this measure was developed for use with adolescents, Blackmon and Thomas (2013) utilised the ARESS with an African American adult population and found internal reliabilities ranging from .66 to .91. Given the present study’s focus on cultural socialisation, only two of the subscales were utilised. Specifically African American Cultural Embeddedness (i.e., exposure to cultural art, artifacts, media and literature that represent the African American experience) and Ethnic Pride (i.e., encouragement of positive feelings about being African American) were included. Sample items for the subscales used included ‘My maternal/paternal caregiver had Black magazines like Essence, Ebony, Jet in the home’ (Cultural Embeddedness) and ‘My maternal/paternal caregiver teaches me to have pride in my Black culture’ (Ethnic Pride). For the subscales incorporated, we found the following Cronbach’s alpha for maternal and paternal caregivers, respectively: a ¼ .74/ .80 (African American cultural embeddedness) and a ¼ .95/ .93 (Ethnic Pride). Body esteem Body esteem was measured using the 35-item Body Esteem Scale (Franzoi and Shields 1984). Participants were asked to indicate their feelings regarding specific parts (e.g., legs, hips and lips) and functions (e.g., physical stamina and sex activities) of their bodies. All items were listed on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from Have strong negative feelings (1) to Have strong positive feelings (5). A factor analysis of the 35-item scale indicated three factors for women (i.e., sexual attractiveness, concern with weight and physical concern: Franzoi and Shields 1984). The Body Esteem Scale has demonstrated adequate internal consistency (a ¼ .78 – .87; Franzoi and Shields 1984). In a previous sample of African American women, the total Body Esteem Scale exhibited excellent reliability (a ¼ .92; Frisby 2004), and this study yielded similar reliability for this scale (a ¼ .95). Results A general linear model (GLM) was conducted to assess differences between women who identified as single, in a committed non-marital relationship and married on the measures of condom use and inquiring about a partner’s sexual history. Table 1 presents the means, standard deviations and results of the GLM by relationship status for both measures. Results indicated that there were significant differences between the three groups on the Condom Use index, (F[2] ¼ 16.01, p , .01) and the Partner History index, (F[2] ¼ 6.37, p , .01). Specifically, single women and women in committed relationships exhibited safer sex practices (i.e., condom use and inquiring about a partner’s sexual history) than married women. There were no significant differences between single women and women in committed relationships. Table 1. Descriptive statistics and post-hoc analyses for dependent variables, by relationship status.

Condom use Partner history

Single (n ¼ 122) M (SD)

Committed relationship (n ¼ 48) M (SD)

Married (n ¼ 68) M (SD)

Mean difference

17.86 (5.24) 24.38 (6.21)

16.38 (5.05) 25.29 (5.84)

13.25 (5.82) 21.60 (6.10)

a . c**, b . c** a . c*; b . c**

Note: *p , .05, **p , .01; a ¼ single, b ¼ committed relationship, c ¼ married.


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Two hierarchical multiple regression analyses were conducted to examine the relationship among the ethnic-racial socialisation practices of caregivers, body esteem and safer sexual practices (i.e., Partner Sexual History and Condom Use). Respondent’s age and relationship status were each entered at Step 1 of each regression analysis to partial out (i.e., control for) the influence of these variables. Relationship status was dummy coded such that unmarried women (i.e., committed, non-marital relationship, divorced, separated, widowed) were coded as 0 and married women were coded as 1. Step 2 of each analysis included paternal and maternal caregiver’s cultural embeddedness and ethnic pride and body esteem. Both regression analyses are presented in Table 2. The first hierarchical regression examined African-American women’s enquiry about their partner’s sexual history. The first block of the model was significant and explained 6% of the variance, (F ¼ 7.71, p , .01). Results indicated that relationship status (b ¼ 2 .20, p , .01) was negatively related to inquiring about partner’s sexual history. Specifically, married women reported that they were less likely to ask about their partner’s previous sexual experiences. The second block of the model examining ethnic-racial socialisation (i.e., cultural embeddedness and ethnic pride) and body esteem as predictors of partner sexual history index scores was also significant (F ¼ 4.62, p , .01) and explained 10% of the variance in partner sexual history index scores. Tests for multicollinearity indicated that a low level of multicollinearity was present among the study variables (variance inflation factor [VIF] ¼ 1.00 for body esteem, 1.00 for paternal cultural embeddedness, 1.00 for paternal ethnic pride, 1.04 for maternal cultural embeddedness and 1.00 for maternal ethnic pride). Results indicated that Body Esteem (b ¼ .21, p , .01) was positively related to women enquiring about their partner’s sexual history. Specifically, individuals who reported higher levels of satisfaction with their bodies also were more likely to report asking partners about their previous sexual experiences. In addition, there was a statistically significant relationship between paternal caregivers’ cultural embeddedness and sexual partner history index scores (b ¼ 2 .20, p , .01). Respondents who reported greater cultural embeddedness from paternal caregivers were less likely to report asking partners about their sexual history. None of the maternal ethnic-racial socialisation variables served as significant predictors. Table 2. Predictors for African-American women’s inquiry into sexual partner’s history and condom use. Partner history Variable Respondent age Relationship status Paternal cultural embeddedness Paternal ethnic pride Maternal cultural embeddedness Maternal ethnic pride Body self-esteem R2 DR2 F-statistic Note: *p , .05, **p , .01.

Condom use

Block 1 b (SE)

Block 2 b (SE)

Block 1 b (SE)

Block 2 b (SE)

2.12 (.03) 2.20 (.96)**

2 .12 (.03) 2 .19 (.95)** 2 .20 (.16)* .08 (.11) .01 (.15) 2 .01 (.11) .21 (.02)** .10 .04 4.62**

2 .09 (.03) 2 .34 (.83)**

2 .09 (.03) 2 .32 (.84)** 2 .07 (.14) 2 .02 (.10) 2 .10 (.14) .08 (.10) .09 (.02) .13 0 5.79**

.06 – 7.71**

.13 – 17.11**



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The second hierarchical regression examined African American women’s condom use. The first block of this model was statistically significant (F ¼ 17.11, p , .01) and explained 13% of the variance in condom-use index scores. Results indicated that relationship status served as a significant predictor of condom use among women in the sample (b ¼ 2 .34, p , .01). As with the first model, married African American women reported lower scores on the condom-use index. The second block of the model, examining ethnic-racial socialisation (i.e., cultural embeddedness and ethnic pride) and body esteem as predictors of condom use scores, was also significant (F ¼ 5.79, p , .01) and explained 13% of the variance in condom use index scores. Tests for multicollinearity indicated that a low level of multicollinearity was present among the study variables (VIF ¼ 1.00 for body esteem, 1.00 for paternal cultural embeddedness, 1.00 for paternal ethnic pride, 1.04 for maternal cultural embeddedness and 1.01 for maternal ethnic pride). However, none of the ethnic-racial socialisation factors or body esteem served as significant predictors (See Table 2). Discussion The present study examined the relationship between ethnic-racial socialisation, body-esteem and safer sexual practices among African American women. It was expected that the ethnic-racial socialisation experiences of African American women and body-esteem would serve as positive predictors for their level of safer sexual practices. The results were mixed. Findings suggest that exposure to Black and African American media (e.g., television and magazines) by paternal caregivers (i.e., paternal cultural embeddedness) resulted in respondents being less likely to ask about partners’ sexual histories. However, there were no significant findings for exposure by maternal caregivers. This finding was contrary to the present study’s predicted direction and differed from the previous research that has linked ethnic-racial socialisation practices with decreased sexual risk-taking (Murray et al. 2007). The inverse relationship found between exposure to Black media and art by paternal caregivers and risky sexual practices may be a reflection of the type and quality of media messages respondents were exposed to by paternal versus maternal caregivers. Though there are racially empowering messages in common Black media outlets (e.g., Jet and Essence magazines), there may also be images and messages within some media that reinforce gender stereotypes and traditional sex roles, thus serving to disempower African American women (Jones 2004). African American women may receive messages and images that suggest they must be traditionally feminine (e.g., passive) in heterosexual relationships. Images of ‘strong’ African American families may imply that in heterosexual relationships men are the head of the household with sole authority over major aspects of the relationship, such as sexual activity (Bowleg, Lucas, and Tschann 2004). While paternal caregivers may be attuned to positive racial images, they may be less aware of the sexism and gender disempowerment present in the depictions. Interestingly, none of the maternal ethnic socialisation factors were related to safer sexual practices. This was surprising given the role mothers have in socialising African American girls (Frabutt, Walker, and MacKinnon-Lewis 2002). The current findings may reflect differences in populations as the present study sample consisted of adult women rather than adolescents. Additionally, the results may be a reflection of the focus on race-based socialisation, which does not account for issues of gender or sexism within the African American community. As noted earlier, African American mothers often provide socialisation that addresses both race and gender, including sexuality (Edmonson-Bell and Nkomo 1998).


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The present findings may also be related to how respondents have since interpreted the ethnic-racial socialisation practices of parental caregivers. To understand the inconsistent findings, future research may need to consider respondents’ perceptions of the relationships (e.g. positive or negative) with paternal and maternal caregivers as this may mediate the relationship between ethnic-racial socialisation practices and sexual risktaking among African American women. In contrast to the ethnic-racial socialisation findings, a positive relationship was found between body-esteem and inquiries into partners’ sexual histories. Thus, respondents who were more satisfied with various aspects of their body were more likely to inquire about their partners’ sexual histories. This finding is consistent with previous research that has linked poor body image to risky sexual practices (Woertman and van den Brink 2012). African American women with a positive perception of their body image may feel more confident inquiring about their partners’ sexual histories. These women may also communicate more assertively and effectively regarding their desire for safer sex practices (Auslander, Baker, and Short 2012; Woertman and van den Brink 2012). Additionally, correlational results suggested that receiving ethnic pride messages from maternal caregivers may be linked to higher body esteem among African American women. This result supports previous research suggesting that socialisation from mothers may serve an important role in the development of a healthy self-perception among African American women (Jones and Shorter-Gooden 2003). Lastly, GLM and regression results from the current study indicated that married women were less likely to inquire about their partners’ sexual histories and to insist that their partners use condoms. This result may be linked to previous studies suggesting a lack of sexual assertiveness and communication among African American women in committed relationships (Bowleg, Lucas, and Tschann 2004). Beliefs that one must do anything necessary to maintain an intimate relationship, that men should have control over sexual activity, or that one should avoid discussions that question the fidelity of a partner may result in married women being less likely to practice safer sexual behaviours. Additionally, these results may suggest that married women perceive that there are fewer risks (e.g., HIV and STI acquisition) associated with having sexual intercourse in a married partnership (Mehrotra et al. 2009). However, as stated earlier, monogamy may not be guaranteed in marital relationships. In planning strategies for reducing exposure to STIs among African American women, it may be necessary to express the importance of all women, regardless of relationship status, being assertive in discussing sexual activity and safer sexual practices with partners. Limitations The current study is not without limitations. The current sample consisted of African American women from one midsized, Midwestern city and findings may not be generalisable to the experiences of African American women in other geographic regions. Additionally, the present sample consisted largely of middle-class, college-educated women. Therefore, caution should be taken in generalising these results to African American women as a whole. The sample was also limited to women who had Internet access as respondents who received an email solicitation were directed to an online Internet questionnaire. As such, there may be some bias toward women who are more proactive in their search for information and those of higher socio-economic status. A strength of the current study is the presence of diversity with respect to relationship status, age, education level and family income. As the majority of research on the risky sexual behaviours of African American women revolves around high-


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risk and low-income populations, the present study expands existent knowledge of African American women as a dynamic population rather than a monolith. Additionally, though there are limitations to utilising a retrospective approach (e.g., inaccuracies in reporting), there may be some benefit to asking adults about past experiences. Over time, African American adults may have formed a clearer understanding of the messages received and are able to comprehend the implications of these experiences (Blackmon and Thomas 2013). The presence of socially desirable responses is possible as participants may have attempted to adhere to socially normative expectations regarding their sexual practices. Additionally, reflection regarding caregivers’ practices may yield different results than studies of adolescents reporting their immediate impressions to parental practices. Regardless, these data yield important and relevant information related to African American women’s sexual practices that many studies have neglected. Implications The present study has implications for future research and interventions addressing the sexual health and practices of African American women. Given their disproportionately high risk, more research and interventions targeting African American women, regardless of relationship status, are needed. Interventions that specifically seek to build and enhance assertive communication skills in this population, accounting for the intersecting influence of race and gender, may prove to be effective in improving safer-sex practices. It is important that all women, regardless of relationship status, are able to engage in conversations with partners regarding sexual activity and safer sexual practices. Additionally, more research is needed to explore and address the safe sexual practices of upwardly mobile African American women. Research on African American women’s sexual practices has focused almost exclusively on low-income, young African American women and specialised treatment populations. This research highlights importance of conducting research and interventions that reflect the heterogeneity of African American women as well as their varying sociocultural experiences. Conclusion Research abounds regarding African American young people and high-risk sexual behaviour but very few studies address the sociocultural context in which women make sexual decisions. Overall, the findings from this study suggest that ethnic-racial socialisation, body esteem and relationship status are important correlates in the sexual practices of African American women. While this study was not meant to offer a complete analysis of African American female sexual practices, its findings suggest a need for broader discussion of the various contexts that inform their sexual practices. Funding This work was provided by the Southern Illinois University Edwardsville Office of Research and Projects.

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Re´sume´ Les risques lie´s aux infections sexuellement transmissibles (par ex. le VIH et la gonorrheé) sont disproportionne´s parmi les femmes africaines-ame´ricaines. Il est donc important d’explorer les facteurs culturels pouvant influencer les pratiques sexuelles de ces femmes. Cette e´tude a examine´, parmi des femmes africaines-ame´ricaines, le rapport entre leurs pratiques sexuelles a` moindre risque (par ex. l’usage du pre´servatif et l’interrogatoire du partenaire sur son parcours sexuel), leur socialisation ethnique-raciale, telle que promue par leur me`re ou par leur pe`re, et l’estime de leur corps. 262 Africaines-Ame´ricaines, aˆgeés de 18 a` 78 ans, majoritairement issues de la classe moyenne et vivant dans une ville du Midwest ame´ricain ont rempli un questionnaire en ligne. Les re´sultats re´ve`lent des diffe´rences significatives concernant l’e´valuation des pratiques sexuelles a` moindre risque baseé sur le statut de la relation avec le partenaire. L’analyse par re´gression sugge`re que certaines pratiques paternelles culturelles sont associeés, de manie`re ne´gative, a` l’interrogatoire du partenaire sur son parcours sexuel ; cependant, l’estime du corps est associeé, de manie`re positive, a` cet interrogatoire. Les implications de ces re´sultats pour les efforts de pre´vention et la recherche sont discuteés.

Resumen Las mujeres afroamericanas corren un riesgo desproporcionadamente alto de contagiarse con infecciones de transmisioń sexual (p. ej., VIH y gonorrea). Por consiguiente, es importante analizar que´ factores culturales influyen en sus praćticas sexuales. En el presente estudio examinamos la relacioń entre praćticas sexuales seguras (es decir, el uso de preservativos y estar al corriente del historial sexual de la pareja), las experiencias de socializacioń etno racial de las participantes con cuidadores maternales y paternales, y la autoestima de la imagen corporal. Para este estudio participaron 262 mujeres afroamericanas (de edades entre 18 y 78 anõs), la mayorıá de clase media, de una ciudad estadounidense del medio oeste que completaron un cuestionario por Internet. Los resultados mostraron diferencias importantes en las mediciones de las praćticas sexuales ma´s seguras en funcioń del estado de la relacioń. Los resultados de regresioń indicaron que ciertas praćticas culturales paternales tenıán una connotacioń negativa cuando se trataba de preguntar sobre el historial sexual de la pareja. Sin embargo, existıá una relacioń positiva entre la autoestima de la imagen corporal y la disposicioń a preguntar a la pareja por su historial sexual. Debatimos las repercusiones en las iniciativas de intervencioń e investigacioń.

Sexuality, sexual practices, and HIV risk among incarcerated African-American women in North Carolina.

The influence of social determinants on sexual risk among out-of-school African American female adolescents.

Exploration of Social, Environmental, and Familial Influences on the Sexual Health Practices of Urban African American Adolescents.

Drug use and sexual behavior of indigent African American men.

Body size perception among African American women.

Influence of sexual sensation-seeking on factors associated with risky sexual behaviour among African-American female adolescents.

Factors associated with sexual arousal, sexual sensation seeking and sexual satisfaction among female African American adolescents.

Gambling and sexual behaviors in African-American adolescents.

Examining the perceptions, preferences, and practices that influence healthy aging for African American older adults: an ecological perspective.

Recollections of sexual socialisation among marginalised heterosexual black men.

African american primary care physicians' prostate cancer screening practices.

Factors Affecting Dietary Practices in a Mississippi African American Community.

Culturally sensitive instructional practices for African-American learners with disabilities.

Examining the Principles of Influence on Safer Sex Communication During Casual and Committed Sexual Encounters.

Sexual Orientation and Sexual and Reproductive Health among African American Sexual Minority Women in the U.S. South.

Beauty and Body Image Concerns Among African American College Women.

Body Size Perceptions among Overweight and Obese African American Women.

HIV-related sexual risk behavior among African American adolescent girls.

Sexual health communication within religious African-American families.

The VAWA makes American Indian women safer.

The role of mothers' and fathers' religiosity in African American adolescents' religious beliefs and practices.

The Impact of Racism on the Sexual and Reproductive Health of African American Women.

Visual Representation of Body Shape in African-American and European American Women: Clinical Considerations.

Assessment of Body Condition in African (Loxodonta africana) and Asian (Elephas maximus) Elephants in North American Zoos and Management Practices Associated with High Body Condition Scores.