Adolescent Slot Machine Dependency and Delinquency: Questions on a Question of Methodology Sue Fisher, Ph.D. University of Plymouth, United Kingdom
This paper responds to Abbott, Palmisano and Dickersons' methodological challenge to Fisher's (1992) study of adolescent fruit machine gamblers, carried out with young video game players. It is argued that important differences in the game under study, the measure of'pathological gambling' used and sample characteristics seriously undermine the extent to which a comparison and extrapolation of findings are achieved. In the analysis which follows, the author wishes to highlight areas of constructive criticism as well as limitations to the challenge with the aim of progressing academic endeavour in this important field.
In the Context of international gaming law, the U . K . is unique in allowing legal slot machine gambling on "fruit machines" to children of all ages. Not surprisingly, some children play excessively and it has been estimated that one in four of all new enrollments to Gamblers Anonymous are young people (Moody, 1992). Organisations such as Parents of Young Gamblers, the U.K. Forum on Young People and numerous local youth work teams have been set up to respond to a growing awareness of problem gambling in young people. These agen-
Send reprint requests to Sue Fisher, Ph.D., Faculty of Human Sciences, Department of Applied Social Science, The University of Plymouth, Plymouth, Devon, PL4 8AA, United Kingdom.
Journal of GamblingStudies Vol. 11(3), Fall 1995 9 1995 Human Sciences Press, Inc.
303
304
JOURNAL OF GAMBLING STUDIES
cies are attempting to estimate the extent of the problem in specific locales, set up counselling help for young people and their families, and develop gambling awareness programmes for young people. The official response of the U.K. Government, based on the findings of a H o m e Office survey, is that "there is no evidence of any association between amusement machines, dependency and delinquency" (Graham 1988, p. iii) and therefore no need for legislative reform. The methodological problems associated with the H o m e Office research and the safety of their findings have been welt documented (Griffiths, 1991; Fisher, 1991). T h e y highlight the growing need for a valid, reliable instrument by which the prevalence of problem gambling in young people may be measured. Such as instrument could be used to estimate the numbers of children involved so that fact m a y be discerned from the polar extremes of governmental denial and mediainduced moral panic. It would also identify the demographic characteristics of at-risk groups and allow the efficient targeting of scarce social Welfare and education resources. Research from other parts of the world suggest a growing (albeit illegal) involvement in gambling among youth in numerous jurisdictions (e.g. Lesieur & Klein, 1987; Jacobs, 1989; Wallisch, 1992; Volberg, 1993). The development of a valid and reliable gambling screen for youth thus has international relevance. Fisher's (1992) study of U.K. schoolchildren was concerned with developing DSM-IV-J (J =Juvenile), a gambling screen for youth based on the D S M - I V criteria used to define pathological gambling in adults (Lesieur & Rosenthal, 1991). The pioneering nature of the research was acknowledged and constructive comment which might enhance the research enterprise was invited. The "methodological challenge" by Abbott, Palmisano and Dickerson (1995, this issue) takes the form of a comparative study of young video game players in an arcade setting. The present paper responds to the methodological challenge and argues that important differences in the game under study, the measure of "pathological gambling" used and sample characteristics seriously undermine the extent to which a comparison and extrapolation of findings is achieved. In the analysis which follows, the author is concerned to highlight areas of constructive criticism as well as limitations to the challenge with the aim of progressing academic endeavour in this important field.
SUE FISHER
305
Q U E S T I O N S ON A Q U E S T I O N OF M E T H O D O L O G Y The following points relate to methodological and other differences which undermine conclusions based on the comparative method. 1. Fisher's sample of young people, surveyed in school, comprised 52 % females and 48 % males. Abbott et al carried out their survey in an arcade on a sample comprising 17 % females and 83 % males. 2. Fisher's sample played slot "fruit" machines in arcades, pubs, holiday camps, fish and chip shops and cafes. Abbott et al sampled young people who played video games in arcades. This is important because Abbott et al suggest that the amusement arcade environment may expose adolescents to delinquents or delinquent activities and that this could account for associations between delinquency and frequency of play of non-gambling machines. The implication is that the amusement arcade environment may similarly account for delinquency in Fisher's (1992) pathological fruit machine players. This extrapolation is problematic: The adolescents identified by Fisher as "probable pathological" fruit machine gamblers were significantly more likely than the "social" players to gamble on fruit machines in a variety of venues: 3 or more including arcades, pubs, fish and chip shops, cafes and holiday camps (Yates corrected Chi-square= 19.4 df--1 p < . 0 0 1 ) (Fisher,
1993a). Similar findings emerge from other empirical research. One headmaster of a small secondary school in Devon, England reported a decline in school meal takings of up to s a week ($1.60 -- s after fruit machines were installed in a cafe near the school. This decline subsequently halted when the machines were removed (cited in Griffiths, 1988). The National Housing and Town Planning Council (1989) reported that dinner money was used more often for non-arcade machines than arcade machines. G r a h a m (1988) drew attention to the use of non-arcade machines by juveniles and proposed that more research into non arcade sites be undertaken. Such findings tend to support the hypothesis that if gambling on slot "fruit" machines is to be seen in a negative light, it is the "fruit" machine which would be the focus of attention rather than the venue (Moran, 1987). 3. Video game playing is not currently recognised as a form of gambling and as such is distinct from fruit machine playing. Presumably, it is this crucial difference which explains why video games are
306
J O U R N A L OF GAMBLING STUDIES
legal and (gambling) slot machines are illegal for children in most jurisdictions. The need for more and more money to chase losses is an important feature of problem gambling. Even if this proves to be true for video game playing (score chasing), the necessary cash turnover is likely to be lower and create less pressure to obtain funds by deviant means. (The highest expenditure by Fisher's amusement machine players in one day was s on gambling (fruit) machines compared with s on video games). Studies of adult gambling confirm a strong association between pathological gambling and illegal behaviours, particularly stealing and fraud (Lesieur & Rosenthal, 1991). Studies of gambling in youth confirm that problem gambling behaviours in adolescents are conceptually similar to those seen in adults (Griffiths, 1991; Fisher, 1992; Winters, Stinchfield & Fulkerson, 1993b). M a n y of the caring agencies set up to treat adolescent problem gamblers in the U.K. are attempting to address the growth of gambling-related delinquency. G o r d o n H o u s e , a residential treatment centre for the rehabilitation of males who have persistently offended to feed their gambling habit, report a growing trend towards younger offenders with a history of slot (fruit) machine gambling-related delinquency in adolescence. T h e finding by Abbott et al. "that video game playing has only a weak association with delinquency and that this relationship is not a function of players' impaired control or addiction to play" may or may not prove to be true, (I think the latter is more likely), but it cannot be safely extrapolated to problem fruit machine gambling and related delinquency. 4. Abbott, et al. claim to have illustrated 'the potential methodological problems in using heterogenous measures of problem gambling when exploring its correlates and attempting to develop theoretical models.'
They do this by using a further heterogenous measure of "pathological gambling" to identify "excessive" video game playing (should excessive video game playing be described as "pathological gambling"?). Not only does this method display a certain logical inconsistency, it results in a contrasting basis for selecting players (of a different game) for comparative purposes. Fisher's measure was based on nine dimensions of pathological gambling including preoccupation, tolerance, withdrawal, escape, chasing losses, lies, illegal acts, jeopardising familial or
SUE FISHER
307
friendship relationships/education and bail out. The measure used by Abbott et al was based upon supernormal frequency of play, supernormal expenditure and 4 items to measure impaired control e.g. 'When I am playing video games I find it easy to stop'; 'When I know I have only a short time to play video games I can stick to it.' 5. A further logical inconsistency arises in that Abbott et al are content to make n o attempt at questionnaire validation for their own heterogenous scale of video game 'addiction' while basing their methodological challenge on a shortcoming in Fisher's (1992) questionnaire validity procedure. The point is made (correctly) that the delinquency variables were both dependent and classificatory. However, this affects only 2 out of the nine criteria and may properly be regarded as a criticism of the questionnaire validity procedure and writing up, as opposed to the effectiveness of DSM-IV-J. Children who scored four or more items on DSM-IV-J were significantly more likely to spend more money and time, borrow, sell their possessions and see themselves as having a gambling problem than the 'social gamblers' who scored less than four items ( p < .001)--none of these were dependent and classificatory items. A reliability analysis of the nine items demonstrated an alpha co-efficient of .78 and a principal factor component analysis reveals that the scale was represented by 2 factors: one of eigenvalue 3.3 accounting for 37% of the variance and one of eigenvalue 1.2 accounting for 12.5% of the variance. In an attempt to improve questionnaire validation, the data have been re-worked omitting the two offending delinquency criteria from the DSM-IV-J index. 'Pathological' gamblers were newly defined as being those who scored 3 or more on the 7 criteria index. Crosstabulations which compared the delinquent and unsocial behaviours of 'pathological' gamblers (n = 29) with 'social' gamblers (n = 249) defined in this way revealed significant differences in stealing (Fisher's Exact p < . 0 0 0 1 ) and using dinner money to gamble on fruit machines (Fisher's Exact p < .005). The incidence of truancy in the school were particularly low due to the introduction of stringent monitoring of registers (see Fisher 1992, p. 275). This result failed to achieve statistical significance using this method of validation (Fisher's exact p < .2). A further survey of adolescent gambling (Fisher, 1995a) has been undertaken on a sample of nearly one thousand 11 to 16 year olds residing in a structurally similar location to the sample surveyed by Fisher (1992). An adaptation of DSM-IV-J was used to screen for
308
JOURNAL OF GAMBLING STUDIES
probable pathological gambling, incorporating the methodological lessons learned from the first survey, with hope of improving questionnaire reliability and validity. Initial psychometric tests on this refined version of the screen are very encouraging and will be submitted for publication in the near future. Rigorous validation and development of existing measures such as DSM-IV-J and SOGS-RA (Winters, 1993a) is problematic due to the lack of treatment centres for children clinically assessed as having problems with gambling from which a validation sample m a y be drawn. Nevertheless, a clinical trial of DSM-IV-J which includes the independent ratings of treatment professionals is underway in the U.K. A clinical trial of DSM-IV-JV which is being developed to identify arcade video game addiction (Fisher, 1994) is also in the data collection stage.
DISCUSSION In the light of the global increase in gambling opportunities, the development of a reliable and valid gambling screen for youth remains a vital research enterprise. Constructive criticism and true comparative research can only enhance the likelihood of progress in this field. Abbott et al have usefully re-emphasised the need for rigorous psychometric testing of heterogenous measures of problem gambling. But a methodological challenge using an unvalidated measure for a nongambling pursuit using a non-comparable data set is seriously flawed. Abbott et al. have made an important contribution to the literature on slot machines by drawing attention to the importance of environments of play in attracting certain social groups. The impact of the environment may be unplanned, as when the more delinquent elements of youth are allowed to monopolise a local arcade; or it m a y be planned to the xenith of sophistication as reflected in the current 'superstore' trends in casino design which aim to compete for family business with Disneyland. Fisher's 1993b ethnographic study of y o u n g arcade slot 'fruit' machine players demonstrated that the "action" on offer from marginal activities in some arcades provided a positive attraction for some adolescents. Fisher (1995b) demonstrated that regular arcade users (once a week or more) were significantly more likely to have a problem with slot machine use than more casual visitors
SUE FISHER
309
( p < = .0001). However, it has yet to be demonstrated that, for example, casino or race track environments and the people who visit them drive adult pathological gamblers to misuse household funds or commit cheque frauds to fund their gambling, rather than the gambling habit per se. It is unlikely that in youth the gambling environment has more than an experience enhancing role in its impact on problem gamblers. Abbott et al. do not make a convincing argument for the environment-delinquency link in their own adolescent video players. The basis for their argument is as follows: " . . . the a m o u n t of m o n e y spent on video g a m e s was a significant p r e d i c t o r of d e l i n q u e n t acts in support o f video g a m e playing. Such an association is c o m p a t ible with the hypothesis that characteristics c o m m o n to a m u s e m e n t arcade e n v i r o n m e n t s foster adolescent d e l i n q u e n c y (p. 299)"
An alternative and more plausible hypothesis is that high expenditure is significantly associated with 'excessive' video game playing, and 'excessive' video game playing is associated with delinquent acts to support play. The research by Abbott et al. draws attention to some important similarities between slot machine gambling and video game playing. In particular it implies the shared concept of 'pathological' or excessive play and related behaviours. The notion that video game playing may be sufficiently like gambling to warrant consideration as a variant form of gambling is likely to divert scholars of problem gambling in youth in the years to come.
REFERENCES Abbott, M. Palmisano, B. & Dickerson, M. (1995). Video game playing, dependency and delinquency: A question of methodology. Journal of Gambling Studies, this issue. Fisher, S. E. (1991). Governmental response to juvenile gambling in the U.K.: Where do we go from here?Journal of Gambling Studies, 7, 217-247. Fisher, S. E. (1992). Measuring pathological gambling in children: The ease of fruit machine gambling in the U.K. Journal of Gambling Studies, 8, 263-285. Fisher, S. E. (1993a). Gambling and pathological gambling in adolescents. Journal of Gambling Studies, 9, 277-287. Fisher, S. E. (1993b). The pull of the fruit machine: A sociological typology of young players. Sociological Review, 41, 3, 446-473. Fisher, S. E. (1994). Identifying video game addiction in children and adolescents. Addictive Behaviors, 19, 5, 545-553.
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Fisher, S. E. (1995a). Gambling in children and adolescents residing in a southwest seaside town. Report for Channel Four News. London. Fisher, S. E. (1995b). The amusement arcade as a social space for adolescents: An empirical study. Journal of Adolescence. In press. Graham, J. (1988). Amusement machines dependency and delinquency. Home Office Research Study No. 101. London: H.M.S.O. Griffiths, M. D. (1988). Adolescent gambling: Report of a workshop. Society for the Study of Gambling Newsletter, 14, 12-16. Griffiths, M. D. (1991). Book review of amusement machines: Dependency and delinquency (Home Office Research Study No. 101. London: H.M.S.O.)Journal of Gambling Studies, 7, 79-86. Jacobs, D. F. (1989). Illegal and undocumented: A review of teenage gambling and the plight of children of problem gamblers in America. In Howard J. Shaffer, Sharon Stein, Blase Gambino and Thomas N. Cummings (eds.). Compulsive gambling: Theory research and practice. (pp. 249-292). Massachusetts/Toronto: Lexington Books. Lesieur, H. R. & Klein, R. (1987). Pathological gambling among high school students. Addictive Behaviors, 12, 129-135. Lesieur, H. R. & Rosenthal, R. J. (1991). Pathological gambling: A review of the literature (prepared for the American Psychiatric Association Task Force on DSM-IV Committee on Disorders of Impulse Control Not Elsewhere Classified). Journal of Gambling Studies, 7, 5-39. Moody, G. (1990). Quit compulsive gambling. Northampton: Thorsons. Moran, E. (1987). Gambling among schoolchildren: The impact of thefruit machine. London: National Council on Gambling. National "Housing and Town Planning Council (1989). Gambling machines andyoung people. London. Author. Volberg, R. A. (1993). Gambling and problem gambling among adolescents in Washington State. Report to the Washington State Lottery. Wallisch, L. (1993). Gambling in Texas." 1992 Texas survey of adolescent gambling behavior. Austin: Texas Commission on Alcohol and Drug Abuse. Winters, K. C., Stinchfield, R. & Fulkerson, J. (1993a). Toward the development of an adolescent problem severity scale. Journal of Gambling Studies, 9, 63-84. Winters, K. C., Stinchfield, R. & Fulkerson, J. (1993b). Patterns and characteristics of adolescent gambling. Journal of Gambling Studies, 9, 371-386.
This paper responds to Abbott, Palmisano and Dickersons' methodological challenge to Fisher's (1992) study of adolescent fruit machine gamblers, carried out with young video game players. It is argued that important differences in the game under study, the measure of'pathological gambling' used and sample characteristics seriously undermine the extent to which a comparison and extrapolation of findings are achieved. In the analysis which follows, the author wishes to highlight areas of constructive criticism as well as limitations to the challenge with the aim of progressing academic endeavour in this important field.
In the Context of international gaming law, the U . K . is unique in allowing legal slot machine gambling on "fruit machines" to children of all ages. Not surprisingly, some children play excessively and it has been estimated that one in four of all new enrollments to Gamblers Anonymous are young people (Moody, 1992). Organisations such as Parents of Young Gamblers, the U.K. Forum on Young People and numerous local youth work teams have been set up to respond to a growing awareness of problem gambling in young people. These agen-
Send reprint requests to Sue Fisher, Ph.D., Faculty of Human Sciences, Department of Applied Social Science, The University of Plymouth, Plymouth, Devon, PL4 8AA, United Kingdom.
Journal of GamblingStudies Vol. 11(3), Fall 1995 9 1995 Human Sciences Press, Inc.
303
304
JOURNAL OF GAMBLING STUDIES
cies are attempting to estimate the extent of the problem in specific locales, set up counselling help for young people and their families, and develop gambling awareness programmes for young people. The official response of the U.K. Government, based on the findings of a H o m e Office survey, is that "there is no evidence of any association between amusement machines, dependency and delinquency" (Graham 1988, p. iii) and therefore no need for legislative reform. The methodological problems associated with the H o m e Office research and the safety of their findings have been welt documented (Griffiths, 1991; Fisher, 1991). T h e y highlight the growing need for a valid, reliable instrument by which the prevalence of problem gambling in young people may be measured. Such as instrument could be used to estimate the numbers of children involved so that fact m a y be discerned from the polar extremes of governmental denial and mediainduced moral panic. It would also identify the demographic characteristics of at-risk groups and allow the efficient targeting of scarce social Welfare and education resources. Research from other parts of the world suggest a growing (albeit illegal) involvement in gambling among youth in numerous jurisdictions (e.g. Lesieur & Klein, 1987; Jacobs, 1989; Wallisch, 1992; Volberg, 1993). The development of a valid and reliable gambling screen for youth thus has international relevance. Fisher's (1992) study of U.K. schoolchildren was concerned with developing DSM-IV-J (J =Juvenile), a gambling screen for youth based on the D S M - I V criteria used to define pathological gambling in adults (Lesieur & Rosenthal, 1991). The pioneering nature of the research was acknowledged and constructive comment which might enhance the research enterprise was invited. The "methodological challenge" by Abbott, Palmisano and Dickerson (1995, this issue) takes the form of a comparative study of young video game players in an arcade setting. The present paper responds to the methodological challenge and argues that important differences in the game under study, the measure of "pathological gambling" used and sample characteristics seriously undermine the extent to which a comparison and extrapolation of findings is achieved. In the analysis which follows, the author is concerned to highlight areas of constructive criticism as well as limitations to the challenge with the aim of progressing academic endeavour in this important field.
SUE FISHER
305
Q U E S T I O N S ON A Q U E S T I O N OF M E T H O D O L O G Y The following points relate to methodological and other differences which undermine conclusions based on the comparative method. 1. Fisher's sample of young people, surveyed in school, comprised 52 % females and 48 % males. Abbott et al carried out their survey in an arcade on a sample comprising 17 % females and 83 % males. 2. Fisher's sample played slot "fruit" machines in arcades, pubs, holiday camps, fish and chip shops and cafes. Abbott et al sampled young people who played video games in arcades. This is important because Abbott et al suggest that the amusement arcade environment may expose adolescents to delinquents or delinquent activities and that this could account for associations between delinquency and frequency of play of non-gambling machines. The implication is that the amusement arcade environment may similarly account for delinquency in Fisher's (1992) pathological fruit machine players. This extrapolation is problematic: The adolescents identified by Fisher as "probable pathological" fruit machine gamblers were significantly more likely than the "social" players to gamble on fruit machines in a variety of venues: 3 or more including arcades, pubs, fish and chip shops, cafes and holiday camps (Yates corrected Chi-square= 19.4 df--1 p < . 0 0 1 ) (Fisher,
1993a). Similar findings emerge from other empirical research. One headmaster of a small secondary school in Devon, England reported a decline in school meal takings of up to s a week ($1.60 -- s after fruit machines were installed in a cafe near the school. This decline subsequently halted when the machines were removed (cited in Griffiths, 1988). The National Housing and Town Planning Council (1989) reported that dinner money was used more often for non-arcade machines than arcade machines. G r a h a m (1988) drew attention to the use of non-arcade machines by juveniles and proposed that more research into non arcade sites be undertaken. Such findings tend to support the hypothesis that if gambling on slot "fruit" machines is to be seen in a negative light, it is the "fruit" machine which would be the focus of attention rather than the venue (Moran, 1987). 3. Video game playing is not currently recognised as a form of gambling and as such is distinct from fruit machine playing. Presumably, it is this crucial difference which explains why video games are
306
J O U R N A L OF GAMBLING STUDIES
legal and (gambling) slot machines are illegal for children in most jurisdictions. The need for more and more money to chase losses is an important feature of problem gambling. Even if this proves to be true for video game playing (score chasing), the necessary cash turnover is likely to be lower and create less pressure to obtain funds by deviant means. (The highest expenditure by Fisher's amusement machine players in one day was s on gambling (fruit) machines compared with s on video games). Studies of adult gambling confirm a strong association between pathological gambling and illegal behaviours, particularly stealing and fraud (Lesieur & Rosenthal, 1991). Studies of gambling in youth confirm that problem gambling behaviours in adolescents are conceptually similar to those seen in adults (Griffiths, 1991; Fisher, 1992; Winters, Stinchfield & Fulkerson, 1993b). M a n y of the caring agencies set up to treat adolescent problem gamblers in the U.K. are attempting to address the growth of gambling-related delinquency. G o r d o n H o u s e , a residential treatment centre for the rehabilitation of males who have persistently offended to feed their gambling habit, report a growing trend towards younger offenders with a history of slot (fruit) machine gambling-related delinquency in adolescence. T h e finding by Abbott et al. "that video game playing has only a weak association with delinquency and that this relationship is not a function of players' impaired control or addiction to play" may or may not prove to be true, (I think the latter is more likely), but it cannot be safely extrapolated to problem fruit machine gambling and related delinquency. 4. Abbott, et al. claim to have illustrated 'the potential methodological problems in using heterogenous measures of problem gambling when exploring its correlates and attempting to develop theoretical models.'
They do this by using a further heterogenous measure of "pathological gambling" to identify "excessive" video game playing (should excessive video game playing be described as "pathological gambling"?). Not only does this method display a certain logical inconsistency, it results in a contrasting basis for selecting players (of a different game) for comparative purposes. Fisher's measure was based on nine dimensions of pathological gambling including preoccupation, tolerance, withdrawal, escape, chasing losses, lies, illegal acts, jeopardising familial or
SUE FISHER
307
friendship relationships/education and bail out. The measure used by Abbott et al was based upon supernormal frequency of play, supernormal expenditure and 4 items to measure impaired control e.g. 'When I am playing video games I find it easy to stop'; 'When I know I have only a short time to play video games I can stick to it.' 5. A further logical inconsistency arises in that Abbott et al are content to make n o attempt at questionnaire validation for their own heterogenous scale of video game 'addiction' while basing their methodological challenge on a shortcoming in Fisher's (1992) questionnaire validity procedure. The point is made (correctly) that the delinquency variables were both dependent and classificatory. However, this affects only 2 out of the nine criteria and may properly be regarded as a criticism of the questionnaire validity procedure and writing up, as opposed to the effectiveness of DSM-IV-J. Children who scored four or more items on DSM-IV-J were significantly more likely to spend more money and time, borrow, sell their possessions and see themselves as having a gambling problem than the 'social gamblers' who scored less than four items ( p < .001)--none of these were dependent and classificatory items. A reliability analysis of the nine items demonstrated an alpha co-efficient of .78 and a principal factor component analysis reveals that the scale was represented by 2 factors: one of eigenvalue 3.3 accounting for 37% of the variance and one of eigenvalue 1.2 accounting for 12.5% of the variance. In an attempt to improve questionnaire validation, the data have been re-worked omitting the two offending delinquency criteria from the DSM-IV-J index. 'Pathological' gamblers were newly defined as being those who scored 3 or more on the 7 criteria index. Crosstabulations which compared the delinquent and unsocial behaviours of 'pathological' gamblers (n = 29) with 'social' gamblers (n = 249) defined in this way revealed significant differences in stealing (Fisher's Exact p < . 0 0 0 1 ) and using dinner money to gamble on fruit machines (Fisher's Exact p < .005). The incidence of truancy in the school were particularly low due to the introduction of stringent monitoring of registers (see Fisher 1992, p. 275). This result failed to achieve statistical significance using this method of validation (Fisher's exact p < .2). A further survey of adolescent gambling (Fisher, 1995a) has been undertaken on a sample of nearly one thousand 11 to 16 year olds residing in a structurally similar location to the sample surveyed by Fisher (1992). An adaptation of DSM-IV-J was used to screen for
308
JOURNAL OF GAMBLING STUDIES
probable pathological gambling, incorporating the methodological lessons learned from the first survey, with hope of improving questionnaire reliability and validity. Initial psychometric tests on this refined version of the screen are very encouraging and will be submitted for publication in the near future. Rigorous validation and development of existing measures such as DSM-IV-J and SOGS-RA (Winters, 1993a) is problematic due to the lack of treatment centres for children clinically assessed as having problems with gambling from which a validation sample m a y be drawn. Nevertheless, a clinical trial of DSM-IV-J which includes the independent ratings of treatment professionals is underway in the U.K. A clinical trial of DSM-IV-JV which is being developed to identify arcade video game addiction (Fisher, 1994) is also in the data collection stage.
DISCUSSION In the light of the global increase in gambling opportunities, the development of a reliable and valid gambling screen for youth remains a vital research enterprise. Constructive criticism and true comparative research can only enhance the likelihood of progress in this field. Abbott et al have usefully re-emphasised the need for rigorous psychometric testing of heterogenous measures of problem gambling. But a methodological challenge using an unvalidated measure for a nongambling pursuit using a non-comparable data set is seriously flawed. Abbott et al. have made an important contribution to the literature on slot machines by drawing attention to the importance of environments of play in attracting certain social groups. The impact of the environment may be unplanned, as when the more delinquent elements of youth are allowed to monopolise a local arcade; or it m a y be planned to the xenith of sophistication as reflected in the current 'superstore' trends in casino design which aim to compete for family business with Disneyland. Fisher's 1993b ethnographic study of y o u n g arcade slot 'fruit' machine players demonstrated that the "action" on offer from marginal activities in some arcades provided a positive attraction for some adolescents. Fisher (1995b) demonstrated that regular arcade users (once a week or more) were significantly more likely to have a problem with slot machine use than more casual visitors
SUE FISHER
309
( p < = .0001). However, it has yet to be demonstrated that, for example, casino or race track environments and the people who visit them drive adult pathological gamblers to misuse household funds or commit cheque frauds to fund their gambling, rather than the gambling habit per se. It is unlikely that in youth the gambling environment has more than an experience enhancing role in its impact on problem gamblers. Abbott et al. do not make a convincing argument for the environment-delinquency link in their own adolescent video players. The basis for their argument is as follows: " . . . the a m o u n t of m o n e y spent on video g a m e s was a significant p r e d i c t o r of d e l i n q u e n t acts in support o f video g a m e playing. Such an association is c o m p a t ible with the hypothesis that characteristics c o m m o n to a m u s e m e n t arcade e n v i r o n m e n t s foster adolescent d e l i n q u e n c y (p. 299)"
An alternative and more plausible hypothesis is that high expenditure is significantly associated with 'excessive' video game playing, and 'excessive' video game playing is associated with delinquent acts to support play. The research by Abbott et al. draws attention to some important similarities between slot machine gambling and video game playing. In particular it implies the shared concept of 'pathological' or excessive play and related behaviours. The notion that video game playing may be sufficiently like gambling to warrant consideration as a variant form of gambling is likely to divert scholars of problem gambling in youth in the years to come.
REFERENCES Abbott, M. Palmisano, B. & Dickerson, M. (1995). Video game playing, dependency and delinquency: A question of methodology. Journal of Gambling Studies, this issue. Fisher, S. E. (1991). Governmental response to juvenile gambling in the U.K.: Where do we go from here?Journal of Gambling Studies, 7, 217-247. Fisher, S. E. (1992). Measuring pathological gambling in children: The ease of fruit machine gambling in the U.K. Journal of Gambling Studies, 8, 263-285. Fisher, S. E. (1993a). Gambling and pathological gambling in adolescents. Journal of Gambling Studies, 9, 277-287. Fisher, S. E. (1993b). The pull of the fruit machine: A sociological typology of young players. Sociological Review, 41, 3, 446-473. Fisher, S. E. (1994). Identifying video game addiction in children and adolescents. Addictive Behaviors, 19, 5, 545-553.
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