Journal of Physical Activity and Health, 2015, 12, 349 -354 http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/jpah.2013-0392 © 2015 Human Kinetics, Inc.
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
A Comparison of Children’s Physical Activity Levels in Physical Education, Recess, and Exergaming Zan Gao, Senlin Chen, and David F. Stodden Purpose: To compare young children’s different intensity physical activity (PA) levels in physical education, recess and exergaming programs. Methods: Participants were 140 first and second grade children (73 girls; Meanage= 7.88 years). Beyond the daily 20-minute recess, participants attended 75-minute weekly physical education classes and another 75-minute weekly exergaming classes. Children’s PA levels were assessed by ActiGraph GTX3 accelerometers for 3 sessions in the 3 programs. The outcome variables were percentages of time spent in sedentary, light PA and moderate-to-vigorous PA (MVPA). Results: There were significant main effects for program and grade, and an interaction effect for program by grade. Specifically, children’s MVPA in exergaming and recess was higher than in physical education. The 2nd-grade children demonstrated lower sedentary behavior and MVPA than the first-grade children during recess; less light PA in both recess and exergaming than first-grade children; and less sedentary behavior but higher MVPA in exergaming than first-grade children. Conclusions: Young children generated higher PA levels in recess and exergaming as compared with physical education. Hence, other school-based PA programs may serve as essential components of a comprehensive school PA program. Implications are provided for educators and health professionals. Keywords: childhood obesity, light physical activity, moderate-to-vigorous physical activity, school-based physical activity programs Obesity continues to be a substantial public health burden in the U.S.1 In particular, the obesity epidemic among children and adolescents has become a major health concern, primarily due to low levels of physical activity (PA) and poor dietary intake.1,2 Overweight and obesity may result in subsequent cardiovascular disease, Type II diabetes and other chronic diseases.3,4 Participating in regular PA plays a key role in the prevention and control of childhood obesity, because PA is positively associated with a variety of health-related benefits as well as significant caloric expenditure. Unfortunately, research shows that only 42% of U.S. children aged 6 to 11 years participate in 60-minute moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) per day.5 As schools target nearly 95% of children in the U.S., schools represent a critical venue to reach children and promote MVPA on a daily basis. Thus, it is imperative to study the effectiveness and efficacy of different school-based PA programs with the goal of developing appropriate programmatic strategies to promote children’s PA participation and health. School-aged children spend most of their awake time receiving formal education on the weekdays, including PA education. For example, elementary school children often have the opportunity to engage in a variety of physical activities through physical education (PE), recess, and other school-based PA programs. PE remains an important source to promote children’s MVPA,6,7 but the requirements for PE vary greatly between states and school levels.7–9 Sallis et al summarized the status of PE and recommended PE promote engagement in MVPA for more than 50% of class time.10,11 Recess, a noncurriculum time that is regularly allotted for leisurely activities Gao ([email protected]) is with the School of Kinesiology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN. Chen is with the Dept of Kinesiology, Iowa State University, Ames, IA. Stodden is with the Dept of Physical Education and Athletic Training, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC.
and free-play,12 may contribute to children’s activity time at school. Recent research shows children generally spend less than 50% of their recess time in MVPA.13–18 In addition, exergaming has been recently integrated into school-based PA programs. Exergaming is an emerging technology that promotes the use of active video games to entertain game performers while providing them with the opportunity for health-enhancing exercise.19–25 Compared with traditional PA, exergaming is often perceived as fun and motivating among children.20,26 However, the effectiveness of exergaming, as compared with PE and recess, remains unanswered. According to Robert Wood Johnson Foundation,27 recess contributes to approximately 42% of PA that children receive at school, while PE accounts for 32%, and other PA programs explain 26%. However, the estimate was based on surveys and not as validated and sensitive as motion sensors such as accelerometers. The lack of systematic objective research evidence that examines and compares children’s PA patterns using accelerometers within these school-based PA programs warrants future investigation. In addition, it has been evident that children differ in their PA levels across different grades and age groups. In particular, research indicates younger children demonstrating higher level of MVPA than older children in PE and recess.13–18,28 For instance, Stratton et al12 found out that children’s MVPA increased from 9 to 10 years of age, peaked at 11 to 12 years of age, and then decreased in later school years. However, grade differences in MVPA in exergaming remain largely unexplored. Consequently, examining the grade differences in children’s PA behaviors among different school-based PA programs is warranted. Taken together, objectively quantifying and comparing the amount of MVPA derived from PE, recess and exergaming will help us understand the current status of children’s PA patterns at school, and capture how active children will be in different schoolbased PA programs. This study was an exploratory investigation 349
350 Gao, Chen, and Stodden
conducted in an elementary school that uniquely embedded PE, recess and exergaming. More specifically, this study was designed to compare children’s different percentages of time in various PA-related behaviors during these 3 programs by grade. It was hypothesized children would accumulate higher MVPA yet lower sedentary and light PA in PE and exergaming than that in recess. It was also hypothesized that younger children would demonstrate higher MVPA and lower sedentary and light PA than older children. Adopting a comprehensive perspective, the study has the potential to unravel the status of children’s PA levels across various school-based programs through accelerometers and to propose corresponding intervention strategies.
Methods Downloaded by Washington Univ In St Louis on 09/17/16, Volume 12, Article Number 3
Participants and Settings Participants were 144 first- and second-grade children enrolled in a suburban Title I elementary school in Western Texas. The majority of sample was Caucasian (118 Caucasian; 14 Hispanics; 3 African American; 1 Asian; and 8 undeclared). Participants attended 150-minute weekly structured PA programs (3 30-minute PE plus 2 30-minute exergaming in 1 week, followed by 2 30-minute PE plus 3 30-minute exergaming in the following week) and a daily 20-minute recess after lunch in 2011 to 2012. Children attended the programs with class as the unit. The class size ranged from 17 to 22. The specific inclusion criteria for this study were 1) children aged 6 to 8 years, 2) without a diagnosed physical or mental disability according to school records, and 3) with parental consent and child assent. Participants in this population were selected because 1) this age range is a critical period for children to develop and maintain a physically active lifestyle and 2) both first- and 2nd-grade children attended all 3 36-week programs (18 weeks in the fall and 18 weeks in the spring) at school. The study was approved by the university Institutional Review Board. Parental consent and child assent were secured before data collection to safeguard the participants’ rights. The 30-minute PE was taught by a certified PE teacher. It adopted a multiactivity curriculum across the school year representing typical PE programs in the state and the country. Different learning contents (tag games, baseball, fitness, etc.) were taught in rotation every 4 weeks. That is, children had approximately 8 learning units in PE across the school year. The children played indoor ‘boccer’ during the data collection period, and the teaching style and content were the same for children in first and second grades. Boccer combines aspects of indoor soccer and basketball but allows children who were not well practiced in either sport to be successful. The teacher typically used 3 minutes to review the rules of the game with students; and then distributed balls and started the game without structured warm-up. There were 6 baskets along two base lines in the gym; and the two teams had mixed genders. When the game was finished, the teacher asked children to line up (which took about 3 minutes) and led them back to classroom. Thus, in a typical 30-minute class the actual time spent in the main activities was approximately 24 minutes. Recess was supervised by classroom teachers after lunch. Participants were dispersed performing free-play activities on an outside playground that included slides, climbers, overhead events, decks, etc. The activities included, but were not limited to, chasing, four square, tag, swing, kickball, sliding, and jumping rope. Approximately 3 minutes were spent lining up in recess. The 30-minute exergaming class was offered 2 or 3 times per week in the school, alternating with PE during the same class period. Twelve exergaming stations were set up in a
classroom, with each station being equipped with 8 different Wii exergames including, but not limited to, Just Dance, Wii Fit, Wii Sports, and Wii Cardio Workout. A trained teacher supervised the children during exergaming. Each station accommodated up to two children to play, and children rotated from one station to another station every 10 minutes allowing for a short duration transition. As such, all children in one class had the opportunity to play exergaming simultaneously, and were able to play different activities during the program.
Instrumentation Children’s PA levels were assessed by ActiGraph GTX3 accelerometers (ActiGraph Co., Pensacola, FL) for 6 week days, in which 3 PE classes, 3 exergaming classes and 6 recess sessions were included in the original data. The ActiGraph GTX3 is a valid and reliable measure of PA among children at school settings and free-living settings.29 Participants were instructed to wear the accelerometers on the right hip, attached by an elastic belt, during school time. Activity counts were set at 1-second epoch. Counts were classified into sedentary, light, moderate, and vigorous categories. The activity counts recorded were interpreted using empirically based thresholds that defined different intensities of children’s PA (sedentary: 0 to 100; light PA: 101 to 2295; and MVPA: 2296 and above).30 Participants’ average percentages of time engaged in sedentary, light PA, and MVPA were used as the outcome variables.
Procedures Before data collection in May 2012, trained research staff explained the purpose of the study and provided instruction on how to appropriately wear the accelerometers. Accelerometers were individually fitted for each child during home room time before class started in the morning (7:50 to 8:10 AM) on each data collection day. All children participating in this study had previous experience wearing pedometers and accelerometers in the exergaming program. Thus, the reactivity effect was minimized. The accelerometers were collected at the end of each school day (3:20 PM). Data from each accelerometer were downloaded to ActiLife 6.0 for data sorting and processing. Data were truncated and matched to the original time frames when each of the 3 PA programs occurred for each participant. As PE and exergaming were offered on alternating days, 3 days were allocated for PE and exergaming data analysis respectively, and another 3 days were randomly selected from the 6 days of recess. If a child missed a day, we conducted make-up assessment for the child. Data were imported into a SPSS document for descriptive and inferential statistical analyses.
Data Analysis A repeated measures multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was conducted to determine the differences in children’s PA levels across the 3 programs. Children’s percentages of time spent in sedentary behavior, light PA, and MVPA were used as the outcome variables. The between-subject factor was grade (first grade vs. second grade), and the within-subject factor was the type of PA program (PE, recess, and exergaming). Both main effects and interaction effect were examined. The Fisher’s LSD multiple comparison analysis with Bonferroni correction was conducted to determine the statistical differences between every 2 programs. A 95% confidence interval was used for all statistical analyses (α = .05). The α level was adjusted to .017 (ie, .05 divided by 3 comparisons) for the LSD multiple comparison
JPAH Vol. 12, No. 3, 2015
Comparison of Physical Activity 351
Results
Downloaded by Washington Univ In St Louis on 09/17/16, Volume 12, Article Number 3
Four children were removed from this study due to missing data on 1 or more programs. The final sample comprised of 75 first-grade children (40 girls; Meanage = 6.55 years) and 65 second grade children (33 girls; Meanage = 7.88 years). Table 1 shows the descriptive results for children’s times and percentages time in sedentary, light PA and MVPA across the 3 programs among all participants and by grade. In general, children accumulated approximately 17 minutes (PE and recess) to 20 minutes (recess and exergaming) of MVPA at school-based PA programs on a daily basis, which only contributed to one-third of the recommended daily MVPA for elementary children (Figure 1). Children had the highest sedentary time in PE, followed by recess, and then exergaming. Children displayed
similar levels of light PA across all 3 programs. Children’s MVPA in exergaming and recess was higher as compared with PE. Children’s sedentary behavior and MVPA in PE, recess, and exergaming showed somewhat different patterns between the two grades, while their light PA percentages were quite similar. The firstgrade children demonstrated the most sedentary behavior in PE and the least in recess, while the second grade children demonstrated the most sedentary behavior in recess and the least in exergaming. On the other hand, the first-grade children had the most MVPA in recess and the least in PE; while the second grade children displayed the most MVPA in exergaming and the least in PE. There were significant main effects for both program, Wilk’s λ =.894, F(3,136) = 5.36, P = .002, and grade, Wilk’s λ =.582, F(6,136) = 15.90, P < .001, as well as an interaction effect for
Table 1 Descriptive Results for Percentages of Sedentary Behavior, Light PA, and MVPA Across Programs
Sedentary
Light PA
Total (N = 140)
Grade 1 (n = 75)
Grade 2 (n = 65)
Mean (SD)
Mean (SD)
Mean (SD)
Recess
55% (15%)
49% (14%)
63% (12%)
Exergaming
52% (19%)
55% (11%)
49% (24%)
PE
63% (15%)
65% (15%)
61% (15%)
Recess
6% (2%)
7% (1%)
5% (2%)
Exergaming
7% (3%)
8% (2%)
6% (3%)
PE MVPA
6% (2%)
6% (2%)
7% (3%)
Recess
39% (14%)
44% (14%)
33% (11%)
Exergaming
40% (17%)
36% (1%)
45% (22%)
PE
31% (14%)
30% (14%)
32% (13%)
Abbreviations: SD, standard deviation; Light PA, light physical activity; MVPA, moderate-to-vigorous physical activity; PE, physical education. Note. P < .05.
Figure 1 — Time (minute) in sedentary behavior, light PA, and MVPA across programs. Abbreviations: light PA = light physical activity; MVPA = moderate-to-vigorous physical activity; PE = physical education. JPAH Vol. 12, No. 3, 2015
352 Gao, Chen, and Stodden
program by grade, Wilk’s λ =.438, F(6,136) = 28.41, P < .001. Table 2 indicates that overall, children’s sedentary behavior in PE was significantly higher than during recess, which in turn was higher than during exergaming. Children’s light PA in exergaming and PE were significantly higher than they had in recess after Bonferroni correction. In addition, children’s MVPA in exergaming was not significantly different from that in recess, but MVPA in these two programs were significantly higher when compared with PE. With regard to grade difference, the second grade children demonstrated significantly more sedentary behavior but less light PA and MVPA than the first-grade children did in recess. In addition, the second
grade children had less sedentary behavior and light PA but higher MVPA in exergaming than first-grade children (Tables 1 and 3).
Discussions The current study found that the children demonstrated higher PA (light PA and MVPA) in recess and/or exergaming than in PE. Contrary to our hypothesis, PE was the least effective school-based program of all 3 PA programs in accumulating MVPA. Based upon our observations and interactions with the PE teacher, the teacher seemed not passionate about teaching the classes, and thus teaching
Downloaded by Washington Univ In St Louis on 09/17/16, Volume 12, Article Number 3
Table 2 LSD Multiple Comparison Analysis Results Measure
Program 1
Program 2
Sedentary
Recess
Exergaming
.038*
.019
.006
.070
PE
–.067*
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
A Comparison of Children’s Physical Activity Levels in Physical Education, Recess, and Exergaming Zan Gao, Senlin Chen, and David F. Stodden Purpose: To compare young children’s different intensity physical activity (PA) levels in physical education, recess and exergaming programs. Methods: Participants were 140 first and second grade children (73 girls; Meanage= 7.88 years). Beyond the daily 20-minute recess, participants attended 75-minute weekly physical education classes and another 75-minute weekly exergaming classes. Children’s PA levels were assessed by ActiGraph GTX3 accelerometers for 3 sessions in the 3 programs. The outcome variables were percentages of time spent in sedentary, light PA and moderate-to-vigorous PA (MVPA). Results: There were significant main effects for program and grade, and an interaction effect for program by grade. Specifically, children’s MVPA in exergaming and recess was higher than in physical education. The 2nd-grade children demonstrated lower sedentary behavior and MVPA than the first-grade children during recess; less light PA in both recess and exergaming than first-grade children; and less sedentary behavior but higher MVPA in exergaming than first-grade children. Conclusions: Young children generated higher PA levels in recess and exergaming as compared with physical education. Hence, other school-based PA programs may serve as essential components of a comprehensive school PA program. Implications are provided for educators and health professionals. Keywords: childhood obesity, light physical activity, moderate-to-vigorous physical activity, school-based physical activity programs Obesity continues to be a substantial public health burden in the U.S.1 In particular, the obesity epidemic among children and adolescents has become a major health concern, primarily due to low levels of physical activity (PA) and poor dietary intake.1,2 Overweight and obesity may result in subsequent cardiovascular disease, Type II diabetes and other chronic diseases.3,4 Participating in regular PA plays a key role in the prevention and control of childhood obesity, because PA is positively associated with a variety of health-related benefits as well as significant caloric expenditure. Unfortunately, research shows that only 42% of U.S. children aged 6 to 11 years participate in 60-minute moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) per day.5 As schools target nearly 95% of children in the U.S., schools represent a critical venue to reach children and promote MVPA on a daily basis. Thus, it is imperative to study the effectiveness and efficacy of different school-based PA programs with the goal of developing appropriate programmatic strategies to promote children’s PA participation and health. School-aged children spend most of their awake time receiving formal education on the weekdays, including PA education. For example, elementary school children often have the opportunity to engage in a variety of physical activities through physical education (PE), recess, and other school-based PA programs. PE remains an important source to promote children’s MVPA,6,7 but the requirements for PE vary greatly between states and school levels.7–9 Sallis et al summarized the status of PE and recommended PE promote engagement in MVPA for more than 50% of class time.10,11 Recess, a noncurriculum time that is regularly allotted for leisurely activities Gao ([email protected]) is with the School of Kinesiology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN. Chen is with the Dept of Kinesiology, Iowa State University, Ames, IA. Stodden is with the Dept of Physical Education and Athletic Training, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC.
and free-play,12 may contribute to children’s activity time at school. Recent research shows children generally spend less than 50% of their recess time in MVPA.13–18 In addition, exergaming has been recently integrated into school-based PA programs. Exergaming is an emerging technology that promotes the use of active video games to entertain game performers while providing them with the opportunity for health-enhancing exercise.19–25 Compared with traditional PA, exergaming is often perceived as fun and motivating among children.20,26 However, the effectiveness of exergaming, as compared with PE and recess, remains unanswered. According to Robert Wood Johnson Foundation,27 recess contributes to approximately 42% of PA that children receive at school, while PE accounts for 32%, and other PA programs explain 26%. However, the estimate was based on surveys and not as validated and sensitive as motion sensors such as accelerometers. The lack of systematic objective research evidence that examines and compares children’s PA patterns using accelerometers within these school-based PA programs warrants future investigation. In addition, it has been evident that children differ in their PA levels across different grades and age groups. In particular, research indicates younger children demonstrating higher level of MVPA than older children in PE and recess.13–18,28 For instance, Stratton et al12 found out that children’s MVPA increased from 9 to 10 years of age, peaked at 11 to 12 years of age, and then decreased in later school years. However, grade differences in MVPA in exergaming remain largely unexplored. Consequently, examining the grade differences in children’s PA behaviors among different school-based PA programs is warranted. Taken together, objectively quantifying and comparing the amount of MVPA derived from PE, recess and exergaming will help us understand the current status of children’s PA patterns at school, and capture how active children will be in different schoolbased PA programs. This study was an exploratory investigation 349
350 Gao, Chen, and Stodden
conducted in an elementary school that uniquely embedded PE, recess and exergaming. More specifically, this study was designed to compare children’s different percentages of time in various PA-related behaviors during these 3 programs by grade. It was hypothesized children would accumulate higher MVPA yet lower sedentary and light PA in PE and exergaming than that in recess. It was also hypothesized that younger children would demonstrate higher MVPA and lower sedentary and light PA than older children. Adopting a comprehensive perspective, the study has the potential to unravel the status of children’s PA levels across various school-based programs through accelerometers and to propose corresponding intervention strategies.
Methods Downloaded by Washington Univ In St Louis on 09/17/16, Volume 12, Article Number 3
Participants and Settings Participants were 144 first- and second-grade children enrolled in a suburban Title I elementary school in Western Texas. The majority of sample was Caucasian (118 Caucasian; 14 Hispanics; 3 African American; 1 Asian; and 8 undeclared). Participants attended 150-minute weekly structured PA programs (3 30-minute PE plus 2 30-minute exergaming in 1 week, followed by 2 30-minute PE plus 3 30-minute exergaming in the following week) and a daily 20-minute recess after lunch in 2011 to 2012. Children attended the programs with class as the unit. The class size ranged from 17 to 22. The specific inclusion criteria for this study were 1) children aged 6 to 8 years, 2) without a diagnosed physical or mental disability according to school records, and 3) with parental consent and child assent. Participants in this population were selected because 1) this age range is a critical period for children to develop and maintain a physically active lifestyle and 2) both first- and 2nd-grade children attended all 3 36-week programs (18 weeks in the fall and 18 weeks in the spring) at school. The study was approved by the university Institutional Review Board. Parental consent and child assent were secured before data collection to safeguard the participants’ rights. The 30-minute PE was taught by a certified PE teacher. It adopted a multiactivity curriculum across the school year representing typical PE programs in the state and the country. Different learning contents (tag games, baseball, fitness, etc.) were taught in rotation every 4 weeks. That is, children had approximately 8 learning units in PE across the school year. The children played indoor ‘boccer’ during the data collection period, and the teaching style and content were the same for children in first and second grades. Boccer combines aspects of indoor soccer and basketball but allows children who were not well practiced in either sport to be successful. The teacher typically used 3 minutes to review the rules of the game with students; and then distributed balls and started the game without structured warm-up. There were 6 baskets along two base lines in the gym; and the two teams had mixed genders. When the game was finished, the teacher asked children to line up (which took about 3 minutes) and led them back to classroom. Thus, in a typical 30-minute class the actual time spent in the main activities was approximately 24 minutes. Recess was supervised by classroom teachers after lunch. Participants were dispersed performing free-play activities on an outside playground that included slides, climbers, overhead events, decks, etc. The activities included, but were not limited to, chasing, four square, tag, swing, kickball, sliding, and jumping rope. Approximately 3 minutes were spent lining up in recess. The 30-minute exergaming class was offered 2 or 3 times per week in the school, alternating with PE during the same class period. Twelve exergaming stations were set up in a
classroom, with each station being equipped with 8 different Wii exergames including, but not limited to, Just Dance, Wii Fit, Wii Sports, and Wii Cardio Workout. A trained teacher supervised the children during exergaming. Each station accommodated up to two children to play, and children rotated from one station to another station every 10 minutes allowing for a short duration transition. As such, all children in one class had the opportunity to play exergaming simultaneously, and were able to play different activities during the program.
Instrumentation Children’s PA levels were assessed by ActiGraph GTX3 accelerometers (ActiGraph Co., Pensacola, FL) for 6 week days, in which 3 PE classes, 3 exergaming classes and 6 recess sessions were included in the original data. The ActiGraph GTX3 is a valid and reliable measure of PA among children at school settings and free-living settings.29 Participants were instructed to wear the accelerometers on the right hip, attached by an elastic belt, during school time. Activity counts were set at 1-second epoch. Counts were classified into sedentary, light, moderate, and vigorous categories. The activity counts recorded were interpreted using empirically based thresholds that defined different intensities of children’s PA (sedentary: 0 to 100; light PA: 101 to 2295; and MVPA: 2296 and above).30 Participants’ average percentages of time engaged in sedentary, light PA, and MVPA were used as the outcome variables.
Procedures Before data collection in May 2012, trained research staff explained the purpose of the study and provided instruction on how to appropriately wear the accelerometers. Accelerometers were individually fitted for each child during home room time before class started in the morning (7:50 to 8:10 AM) on each data collection day. All children participating in this study had previous experience wearing pedometers and accelerometers in the exergaming program. Thus, the reactivity effect was minimized. The accelerometers were collected at the end of each school day (3:20 PM). Data from each accelerometer were downloaded to ActiLife 6.0 for data sorting and processing. Data were truncated and matched to the original time frames when each of the 3 PA programs occurred for each participant. As PE and exergaming were offered on alternating days, 3 days were allocated for PE and exergaming data analysis respectively, and another 3 days were randomly selected from the 6 days of recess. If a child missed a day, we conducted make-up assessment for the child. Data were imported into a SPSS document for descriptive and inferential statistical analyses.
Data Analysis A repeated measures multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was conducted to determine the differences in children’s PA levels across the 3 programs. Children’s percentages of time spent in sedentary behavior, light PA, and MVPA were used as the outcome variables. The between-subject factor was grade (first grade vs. second grade), and the within-subject factor was the type of PA program (PE, recess, and exergaming). Both main effects and interaction effect were examined. The Fisher’s LSD multiple comparison analysis with Bonferroni correction was conducted to determine the statistical differences between every 2 programs. A 95% confidence interval was used for all statistical analyses (α = .05). The α level was adjusted to .017 (ie, .05 divided by 3 comparisons) for the LSD multiple comparison
JPAH Vol. 12, No. 3, 2015
Comparison of Physical Activity 351
Results
Downloaded by Washington Univ In St Louis on 09/17/16, Volume 12, Article Number 3
Four children were removed from this study due to missing data on 1 or more programs. The final sample comprised of 75 first-grade children (40 girls; Meanage = 6.55 years) and 65 second grade children (33 girls; Meanage = 7.88 years). Table 1 shows the descriptive results for children’s times and percentages time in sedentary, light PA and MVPA across the 3 programs among all participants and by grade. In general, children accumulated approximately 17 minutes (PE and recess) to 20 minutes (recess and exergaming) of MVPA at school-based PA programs on a daily basis, which only contributed to one-third of the recommended daily MVPA for elementary children (Figure 1). Children had the highest sedentary time in PE, followed by recess, and then exergaming. Children displayed
similar levels of light PA across all 3 programs. Children’s MVPA in exergaming and recess was higher as compared with PE. Children’s sedentary behavior and MVPA in PE, recess, and exergaming showed somewhat different patterns between the two grades, while their light PA percentages were quite similar. The firstgrade children demonstrated the most sedentary behavior in PE and the least in recess, while the second grade children demonstrated the most sedentary behavior in recess and the least in exergaming. On the other hand, the first-grade children had the most MVPA in recess and the least in PE; while the second grade children displayed the most MVPA in exergaming and the least in PE. There were significant main effects for both program, Wilk’s λ =.894, F(3,136) = 5.36, P = .002, and grade, Wilk’s λ =.582, F(6,136) = 15.90, P < .001, as well as an interaction effect for
Table 1 Descriptive Results for Percentages of Sedentary Behavior, Light PA, and MVPA Across Programs
Sedentary
Light PA
Total (N = 140)
Grade 1 (n = 75)
Grade 2 (n = 65)
Mean (SD)
Mean (SD)
Mean (SD)
Recess
55% (15%)
49% (14%)
63% (12%)
Exergaming
52% (19%)
55% (11%)
49% (24%)
PE
63% (15%)
65% (15%)
61% (15%)
Recess
6% (2%)
7% (1%)
5% (2%)
Exergaming
7% (3%)
8% (2%)
6% (3%)
PE MVPA
6% (2%)
6% (2%)
7% (3%)
Recess
39% (14%)
44% (14%)
33% (11%)
Exergaming
40% (17%)
36% (1%)
45% (22%)
PE
31% (14%)
30% (14%)
32% (13%)
Abbreviations: SD, standard deviation; Light PA, light physical activity; MVPA, moderate-to-vigorous physical activity; PE, physical education. Note. P < .05.
Figure 1 — Time (minute) in sedentary behavior, light PA, and MVPA across programs. Abbreviations: light PA = light physical activity; MVPA = moderate-to-vigorous physical activity; PE = physical education. JPAH Vol. 12, No. 3, 2015
352 Gao, Chen, and Stodden
program by grade, Wilk’s λ =.438, F(6,136) = 28.41, P < .001. Table 2 indicates that overall, children’s sedentary behavior in PE was significantly higher than during recess, which in turn was higher than during exergaming. Children’s light PA in exergaming and PE were significantly higher than they had in recess after Bonferroni correction. In addition, children’s MVPA in exergaming was not significantly different from that in recess, but MVPA in these two programs were significantly higher when compared with PE. With regard to grade difference, the second grade children demonstrated significantly more sedentary behavior but less light PA and MVPA than the first-grade children did in recess. In addition, the second
grade children had less sedentary behavior and light PA but higher MVPA in exergaming than first-grade children (Tables 1 and 3).
Discussions The current study found that the children demonstrated higher PA (light PA and MVPA) in recess and/or exergaming than in PE. Contrary to our hypothesis, PE was the least effective school-based program of all 3 PA programs in accumulating MVPA. Based upon our observations and interactions with the PE teacher, the teacher seemed not passionate about teaching the classes, and thus teaching
Downloaded by Washington Univ In St Louis on 09/17/16, Volume 12, Article Number 3
Table 2 LSD Multiple Comparison Analysis Results Measure
Program 1
Program 2
Sedentary
Recess
Exergaming
.038*
.019
.006
.070
PE
–.067*
