1978
Am
J Psychiatry
having
received
136:1,
January
1979
Anniversaries
BY GEORGE
The author individuals
MORA,
M.D.
recalls 1978’s anniversaries prominent in the history
psychiatry,
andpsychology
practical
and
and
theoretical
ofevents of medicine,
examines
strong
and
from could and one, from
their
contributions.
.
.
.
man,
who
an
injury
and
affront
one more powerful than himself, and upon whom he not have his revenge, was so overcome with hatred spite and passion, which he yet communicate to no that at last he fell into a strange distemper, suffering extreme oppression and pain of the heart and breast and in the course of a few years became tabid and .
.
.
died.
I 578 William After
Harvey
receiving
was
born
a thorough
classical
King’s School in Canterbury Cambridge, Harvey studied graduated
in medicine
in Folkestone, education
at
and Caius College in Padua, Italy, where
in 1602.
Back
Harvey also fainting related
England.
in England
the physiological and stated that
signs
in he
in almost suffers,
every affection, the countenance
to course
in the
hither
were to hear; with
blood
appetite, changes,
and thither.
pupils contracted; blushes; in fear, face is pale but
in
and
hope or fear, and the blood
In anger
our body appears
the eyes are fiery and
in modesty the cheeks are infused with and under sense ofinfamy and shame, the the ears burn as if for evil they heard or lust how quickly is the member distended erected!
Harvey’s psychological dent in regard to symptoms
insight is particularly of hysteria. Women
casionally
through
become
with either pain or pleasure, hope or fear, is the of an agitation whose influence extends to the Elsewhere he related the observation of a
insane
ungratified
desire,
‘ ‘
is a most
important
to sympathize
organ,
with
How dreadful, hirium, affected
arising
then,
person
brings
are the mental
the melancholy, from
and
the
the
were
paroxisms the dominion
under
the unnatural
state
aberrations, of frenzy, of spells,
of the uterus.
incurable diseases also are brought on by strual discharges, or from over abstinence tercourse when the passions are strong!
Harvey
“hysteric’ a young all the
also ‘
body
left
a beautiful
the deas if the and all
How
description
of a case
16, 1978; accepted
Oct.
25,
expected
all was refused
1978.
Dr. Mora is Medical Director, Astor Home for Children, Rhinebeck, N.Y., and Research Associate, Department of History of Science and Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, Conn. Address reprint requests to him at 32 Slate Hill Dr., Poughkeepsie, N.Y. 12603. 44
0002-953X/79/01/0044/05/$00.50
of
.
.
.
who experienced
symptoms
in her own person
of pregnancy;
after
the
fourteenth
week, being healthy and sprightly, she felt the movement of the child within the uterus, calculated the time at which she
Oct.
many
unhealthy menfrom sexual in-
pregnancy:
woman usual
whole
it, he said,
her
delivery,
and
when
she
thought,
further indications, that this was at hand, prepared bed, cradle, and all other matters ready for the event. July 31, 1978: revised
evioc-
‘ ‘
and to such a height does the malady reach in some, that they are believed to be poisoned, or moonstruck, or possessed by a devil. Having stated that the uterus
,
Received
of
the
same year, he married the daughter of the King’s personal physician. In 1607 he was elected Fellow of the College of Physicians, in 1609 became associated with St. Bartholomew’s Hospital, and in 1618 became physician to King Charles I, with whom he developed a close relationship. For 40 years, beginning in 1616, he held the Lumleian lectures on anatomy and physiology at the College ofPhysicians. Greatly upset by the Civil War, he remained faithful to Charles I. He died in 1657. Harvey is universally known for his discovery of the circulation of the blood. His discovery, based on solid experimental research, was described in his famous De Motu Cordis (1628). Among his other writings are the Prelectiones (notes on physiology and pathology related to his Lumleian lectures) and Exercitationes de Generatione Animalium in which he expressed his belief in the theory of epigenesis. An acute observer of human psychology, especially of women (undoubtedly fostered by his gynecological practice), Harvey fol!owed contemporary views, based on the Galenic tradition, on the knowledge of the nervous system. In the field of psychiatry proper, he anticipated concepts of modern psychosomatic medicine. In Exercitatio de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis he wrote that “every affection of the mind that is attended cause heart.”
described to emotions
in vain. Lucina. to answer her
.
.
tutelar
prayers;
deity the
American
Psychiatric
Association
But
of childbirth
motion
ceased; and by degrees, without inconvenience, domen had increased so it diminished; she however, barren ever after. © 1979
from the
of
the
.
.
fetus
as the abremained,
Am
J Psychiatry
Finally,
/36:1,
in the
January
case
1979
of an
18-year-old
‘lost the sense of feeling in the Body,” obviously on a hysteric her Parents to take her
(who home,
girl
external basis,
‘
vised erty)
GEORGE
sent her not and provide
who
parts Harvey
had
of her “ad-
thither out of povher a Husband, by
whom, in effect, she was according to many Mans wonder, cured ofthat
to his Prognostick, strange Disease.”
began
only
pact
not
oping
France.
Rousseau’s
Having
his unstable many years
veloped
died
mother
died
received
in
Ermenonville,
at his
birth
an uneven
father, he fled Geneva by Mme. de Warens,
a strong
attachment.
in 1712
education
in
After
having
held
several
servant girl, all of whom
meantime he acquainted with some of the leading represenof the French Enlightenment. His early writ-
tatives
his
ings
reveal
tific
progress
dissatisfaction with the failure of sciento improve the condition ofmankind. His works, Le Contrat Social and Emile, ap-
two main peared in 1762. After Paris by the Catholic an
invitation
his
home
from
in
Rousseau
work was Rousseau
philosopher
quarreled
evidence France
the latter authorities,
England
David
in
1765.
with
Hume
burned in accepted
Hume
to
Shortly and
make
thereafter
began
to
show
of
emotional disturbance. He returned to and spent his last few years in Paris. Basic to Rousseau’s thinking was his rejection of the cult of reason advocated by the Enlightenment as leading to return
happiness; to the state
his proposal lowing
that
maximal
individuals
obvious
social
for
that
ly linked
to
this
through social
the
is the
a proper
Rousseau’s
to his
Rousseau advocated a Hence, Rousseau issued
life be based
freedom
postulate
sary
in contrast, of nature.
on a contract
individual.
development process
al-
A neces-
of mature
ofeducation.
educational
ideas
It is
were
close-
12 years,
the
goals.
senses
develop
under
the
influence
of
pleasure and pain. In the third stage, years, the child learns not in an abstract, crete, way; in the develops rationally and religion.
fourth, and
a passionate
education
of our
from acquires
from 12 to 15 but in a con15 to 20 years, the child the
ideas
of
as well.
century
that
was
Rousseau’s the unhappy
revolutionary circumstances
vicissitudes
of his
positive
newly
preimdevel-
only
at the
idyllic
con-
modified
views ofhis
by
the
and aggression It is likely that
were influenced by childhood and by the
life.
Christian
values
Friedrich
Germany. telligent, languages. received after
Nasse
was
.
.
education
born
in
Bielefeld,
Proving at an early age to be highly inhe showed an interest in music and modern After studying at several universities, he his medical degree in Halle in 1800. In 1815,
several
years
ofgeneral
practice,
he accepted
position
of professor
of medicine
and
chief
energies
toward
main
the
care
the
physician at the hospital of the medical school of Halle. In 1819 he was called as clinical professor of medicine to the newly established University of Bonn, where he remained for the rest of his life. There he directed his two
goals:
and
treat-
ment of patients and the training of students according to the then-modern direction of experimental research on animals, work in the laboratory, and bedside teaching.
A prolific
on
various
lications of the
writer,
aspects
he published
of
books
medicine.
and
Among
articles
his
pub-
on psychiatry Mentally Ill
is the volume On the Treatment by Non-Physicians (1844). He founded and directed the Journal for Psychological Physicians (18181826), Annals of Anthropology and Pathology and Therapy of Insanity (1830), and the Journalfor th e Diagnosis and Treatment of Pat hological Mental Conditions (with Jacobi, 1838). He died in 1851.
At various
times Nasse called his system psychopsychosomathology and anthropologynames that emphasize the unity of the personality. He viewed psychosis as entirely dependent on a physical condition; as mind and body are indissolubly united, it ,
is impossible sense of the
,
to speak of mental disorders in the strict term. He also assumed a critical stance
toward mechanistic and spiritualistic, and monistic and dualistic attitudes. Under the influence of the philosopher Herbart, he attempted to build a psychology based on mathematical sophical postulates.
His
foundations principles
ing,
a truly
the
It was
on sexuality of childhood.
ing.”
he felt that
style and a tremendous
substantially
were based on direct observation sessment of environmental factors,
Moreover,
of his or her
Rousseau’s
Thus for the first time it was clearly stated that childhood should be studied with its own criteria rather than from the viewpoint of the adult. Childhood should not be seen as an age of imperfection, since it had its own uniqueness and adequacy based on feelings and instinctual needs. As Rousseau put it: “Nature wants children to be children before being men. Childhood has its own ways of seeing, thinking and feel.
aware
Emile had but on
of psychology
of childhood
physiology
Four stages of education are clearly defined in the four parts ofEmile. In the first, from birth to 2 years, the child begins experiencing things; in the second, up to
with way,
on
became
people.
from
and was helped for toward whom he de-
jobs, he became involved with an ignorant by whom he had five illegitimate children, were sent to a foundling home. In the
became
other
psychoanalytic emphasis as basic characteristics
Rousseau
Geneva.
only
field
beginning
I 778 Jacques
the child
with
Although written sented in an uneven
cept
Jean
when
relationship
MORA
and void of clinical
of philomedicine
of the patient, and formulation
asof
the individual diagnosis. In the Clinic for Mental Disease, which he opened in Bonn in 1819, he created a small community of patients, teachers, nurses, and students. For him, the psychiatrist should be an “anthropological physician” as, indeed, he was himself: a specialist in welfare medicine, clinical matters, teach-
and
legal
issues. 45
1978
Am
ANNIVERSARIES
Along icistic
with
other
representatives
philosophy
of German
of psychiatry
(Reil,
organ-
Fnedreich,
Ja-
cobi), Nasse was opposed to the so-called “mentalists’ (Heinroth, Ideler, Groos). He denied the existence of prenatal psychological influences and viewed all deductions of psychologists on the infantile psyche ‘
as
pure
fantasy.
For
him,
the
etiology
of mental
dis-
orders had to be found in disorders of the various organs of the body, especially the brain. Yet under the influence of Herbart, he accepted the notions of ‘threshold of the unconsciousness’ and, consequently, of repression and inhibition. He was also interested in the study of dreams and somnambulism. In the practical handling of the mentally ill he was eclectic and open-minded, making use ofdietetics, limited means ofrestraint, psychological influence, and occupational therapy. ‘
‘
I 878 Claude Bernard died. Born in St. Julien (Rh#{244}ne, France) in 1813, he received essentially a humanistic education. After working as an assistant pharmacist for some time (and unsuccessfully as a writer), he studied medicine in Paris, where he became assistant to Fran#{231}ois Magendie. Under his influence Bernard became involved in experimental physiology, as indicated by his medical thesis on the role of gastric juices in nutrition (1843). He developed the notion of “physiological autopsy,’ a technique aimed at isolating the properties of tissues and organs with the help of chemical substances. Among his most important discoveries in the field of neurophysiology during the succeeding years were the etiology of diabetes, the constricting and dilating functions of the vasomotor nerves, and the action of curare on the voluntary musdes (in recent years this action has had application in anesthesia and electroconvulsive therapy). Soon recognized as the leading experimental physiologist in France, Bernard received a number of awards and was appointed to prestigious positions, ‘
first
at
the
Sorbonne
(chair
of
general
physiology),
then the Academie des Sciences and the France (chair of experimental medicine). produced
which
a number
remains
exp#{233}rimentale Physiology and (1858). In these
of volumes,
the introduction (1865), preceded Pathology
the
College In time
de he
most
important of la m#{233}decine by the Lectures on the of the Nervous System
a l’#{233}tudede
works he developed the concepts of “inner secretion,” “inner environment,” and “reciprocal inhibition,” which were to become basic to the understanding of the functions of the organism. As a matter of fact, he always gave preeminence to function
over form in his painstaking search for the life. In later years he taught at the Museum History (1868) and was appointed senator pire (1869) and president of the Acad#{233}mie
(1869). Of his many scientists in France, States.
essence of of Natural of the emde France
pupils, some became outstanding Germany, Russia, and the United
J Psychiatry
136:1,
January
1979
Stanley Hall received the first American doctorate in psychology from Harvard University. Hall was born in 1844 and raised on a farm in Ashfield, Mass. En-
dowed
with
hams
College,
great
personal where
spired by philosophy for the ministry at New
York.
He
then
ambition,
he
he attended
became
Wil-
enthusiastically
in-
and evolution. In 1867 he studied Union Theological Seminary in spent
some
time
learning
theology
and philosophy, as well as physiology and physics, in Bonn and Berlin. Back home in 1871, he took his degree in theology but soon resigned from his first pastorate. For three years he taught French and German languages and literature at Antioch College. His interest in psychology was spurred by reading Wundt’s Physiological Psychology. Eventually he came under the influence of William James at Harvard, where in 1878 he presented his dissertation on the muscular perception of space. Following that he spent two years in Leipzig as Wundt’s first American student. Now definitely committed to the study of psychology, Hall embarked on an investigation of children’s thoughts and beliefs through interviews and questionnaires. He slowly gained renown through a series of Saturday morning talks on education given at the invitation ofthe president ofHarvard. In 1881 he accepted an offer to lecture at Johns Hopkins, and three years later he became full professor there. In 1883 he founded at Hopkins what is usually considered the first American psychology laboratory; a number of promising young men, such as Cattell and Dewey, were trained there. In 1887 he began to publish the American Journal of Psychology, the first journal of psychology in this country and still an important one today. Appointed the first president of the University in 1888, Hall aspired to develop
center
modeled
on the
style
of the
German
new
Clark
a research universi-
ties. There he taught psychology and founded the Pedagogical Summary (now the Journal of Genetic Psychology) in 1891 The next year, with a few others, he .
founded which
the he
was
American elected
Psychological the
first
Association,
of
president.
The results of the many studies on children conducted by Hall and his associates were published in 1894 in The Content of Children’s Minds on Entering School, a pioneering endeavor in the field of child psychology. It was followed by the monumental two-volume book Adolescence in 1904. By that time Hall was intrigued by the novelty of the psychoanalytic theories. In spite of the opposition of many of his colleagues
and
much
of the
public,
he
managed
to invite
Freud, Jung, and some other psychoanalysts for a series of conferences on the occasion of the 20th anniversary of Clark University in 1909. His longstanding interest in religion led him to publish the book Jesus the Christ in the Light of Psychology (1917), which was severely criticized by organized religion. He continued to work even after his retirement in 1920. In 1922 he published his two-volume book Senescence, the first work on geriatric psychology. Two of his books, Recreation of a Psychologist (1920) and The
Am
J Psychiatry
Life
and
136:1,
January
Confessions
tobiographical. In retrospect,
ofa
GEORGE
1979
Psychologist
(1923),
Hall died in 1924. Hall’s interests
fragmentary
and
credited
with
interest
in new
scattered.
two
main
fields,
may
appear
However,
he
rather
lutionary
theory
as
the
constant
be
he aroused
developmental
focus
of
John
was
born
independent
in Greenville,
spirit
from
16 he entered Furman University, tamed a master’s degree in 1900. already
opposed
his position and had ously revealed talent
multi-
to
any
S.C.
early
A re-
years,
at age
from which At that time
he obhe was
religious
influence.
orientation
professor “tropism. same year prominent versity of psychology
tory. In 1913 ‘Psychology
of biological
studies
of physiology and Watson received “
He
by Jacques
originator his Ph.D.
then
Loeb,
of the theory of in 1903. In that
he married a woman who belonged to a family and continued to work at the UniChicago as an instructor in experimental and director of the psychological labora-
his famous manifesto Views It. In it he proclaimed that psychology ‘is a purely objective experimental branch of natural science. Its theoretical goal is the prediction and control of behavior. The following year he produced Behavior: An introduction to Cornparative Psychology, a defense of animal psychology and of the place that it occupies in the behavioral sciences. In this way Watson was advocating a new kind ofpsychology “in the third person,” which was at variance with Wundt’s psychology ‘in the first person” (the school of introspection) and Freud’s psychology ‘in the second person’ (based on the transference situation between the individual and the analyst). The forceful and at times polemic way in which Wat‘
Watson published as a Behaviorist
‘ ‘
‘
‘ ‘
‘
‘
‘
son presented his ideas had a great impact tire field of American psychology. Elected
on the president
enof
the American Psychological Association in 1915, he announced his support of the theory of conditional reflexes brought forward by the Russian neurologist V.M. Bekhterev. (Pavlov’s main work on conditional reflexes
did not become available The climate seemed ready for from a speculative to a concrete
1927.) ogy
After a period of difficulties War I related to his criticism
in English until a shift in psycholorientation.
toward the end of World of a neurological test for
pilots, Watson began the study of children at the Henry Phipps Clinic in Baltimore. He concluded that the emotional reactions of children can be reduced to three types: love, elicited by the gentle stimulation of
the skin; elicited
rage, by
loud
elicited noises
by physical and
loss
restraints; of support.
and In
at Hopkins.
skill as the evohis
three
fear,
1919
he
book,
was
years
Psychologyfrom
peak of his career, afterward married
community
entered the University of Chicago, which was then dominated by George Mead and John Dewey. There he was particularly influenced toward experimental psychology by James R. Angell and toward a materialistic
In 1920, at the vorced and soon
a large business
B. Watson and
his most famous ofa Behaviorist.
his coworker
activity.
bellious
published Standpoint
psychol-
ogy and psychoanalysis through his excellent an organizer and publisher, and he maintained farious
au-
should
accomplishments: notably
are
The
so strong
he rose
advertising until his
ofthe
he was
was diRayner, academic
dismissed
as a salesman. new occupation,
to the position agency. retirement
the
Watson Rosalie
reaction
that
to work in this He
MORA
from He
obvifor in
of vice-president
remained in 1946.
in the
of field
of
Watson’s main psychology, and Clark University
interest, however, continued to be he pursued it through lecturing (at and the New School for Social Research) and writing. His book Behaviorism (1925) contains the following famous statement: ‘Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specific world to bring them up in and I will guarantee to take ‘
any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select. As far as is known, this experiment was never carried out. In 1928, he produced Psychological Care ofthe infant and Child, a popular ‘ ‘
book for the general public. It was year by The Battle ofBehaviorism, William
McDougall,
then
exponent
of the doctrine
son
the
spent
last
years
He died in 1958. Although Watson’s
professor
followed a polemic at Harvard
of purposive of his
the next against
life
and
behavior. in Westport,
theories
were
the
WatConn.
highly
con-
troversial, they were very stimulating for both his adherents and opponents. During his life neobehaviorism was flourishing, mainly through the work ofC.L. Hull. After his death the spread of behavior therapy gave
new
meaning
to Watson’s
work.
Kurt Goldstein was born in Kattowitz, Germany (now Poland). After obtaining a medical degree from the University of Breslau in 1903, he taught at the University of K#{246}nigsberg (1907-1915) and then worked as director of the Institute for Research into the Aftereffects
of Brain
Injuries.
He
later
became
professor
of
neurology at the University of Frankfurt (1916-1929), followed by a short stay in Berlin (1929-1933). His firsthand experience with large numbers of brain-injured soldiers during World War I, coupled with the influence
of
the
then-emerging
movement
of
Gestalt
theory, led him to consider the organism as a whole regardless of any particular deficit. Together with Wertheimer, K#{246}hler,Koffka, and Gruhle, he was one of the cofounders of the Gestalt psychology journal Psychologische Forschung (1921-1938). Forced
emigrated
by
the
Nazis
to Amsterdam volume The
to
leave
Germany,
(1934-1935),
where
Goldstein
he wrote
his classic Organism: A Holistic Approach to Biology Derived from Pathological Data in Man (1934; translated into English in 1938). In it he
presented the concept of the inborn potential toward self-realization as a driving force that puts the organism into action and achieves its optimal state when there is “adequacy” between the organism and the 47
1978
Am
ANNIVERSARIES
world. Good gestalt is ‘a form of coming to terms of the organism with the world, that form in which the organism actualizes itself, according to its nature, in the best way. Poor gestalt, “the tendency to discharge any tension whatsoever is a characteristic expression of a defective organism, of disease.” In fact, aphasic and brain-injured persons lack the ability to name objects as class symbols rather than experiencing the loss of words and word images, which ‘
“
indicates that while defects can be localized, functions cannot. In particular, Goldstein described the “catastrophic reaction” of brain-injured patients as a state of tremendous anxiety accompanied by a sense of “losing existence” or feeling unable “to be.” By dividing human acts into the abstract and the concrete, he postulated that impairment in abstract thinking (attention, planning, discrimination, hypothesizing) leaves
concrete operations unaffected, and vice versa. The Goldstein-Gelb and Goldstein-Scheerer tests were devised to measure the ability to form concepts and to diagnose brain lesions. Goldstein suggested that schizophrenics’ behavior may be either concrete or ab-
48
stract,
but
arousing From chiatry
that
to become
situations. 1936 to 1940 Goldstein at Columbia
rophysiological New
it tends
J Psychiatry
York
University
Laboratory City.
During
ered the William James under the titleHuman
136:1,
January
concrete
in anxiety-
was
professor
and
chief
at Montefiore the
period
lectures,
of psy-
of the
Neu-
Hospital
1938-1939
which
1979
were
in
he deliv-
published
Nature in the Light of Psychopathology (1940). He later served as professor of neurology at Tufts Medical School in Boston (1940-1945). From 1946 until his death in 1965 he taught at the College of the City of New York, Columbia University, and the New School for Social Research, and was guest professor at Brandeis University in Waltham, Mass. In 1962 he was one of the cofounders of the Journal of Humanistic Psychology. Among those particularly influenced by Goldstein were Abraham Maslow, the well-known promoter of “third force (humanistic) psychology,” and Fritz Perls, who was the founder of Gestalt psychotherapy. Goldstein’s Selected Papers were published posthumously in The Hague
in 1971.
Am
J Psychiatry
having
received
136:1,
January
1979
Anniversaries
BY GEORGE
The author individuals
MORA,
M.D.
recalls 1978’s anniversaries prominent in the history
psychiatry,
andpsychology
practical
and
and
theoretical
ofevents of medicine,
examines
strong
and
from could and one, from
their
contributions.
.
.
.
man,
who
an
injury
and
affront
one more powerful than himself, and upon whom he not have his revenge, was so overcome with hatred spite and passion, which he yet communicate to no that at last he fell into a strange distemper, suffering extreme oppression and pain of the heart and breast and in the course of a few years became tabid and .
.
.
died.
I 578 William After
Harvey
receiving
was
born
a thorough
classical
King’s School in Canterbury Cambridge, Harvey studied graduated
in medicine
in Folkestone, education
at
and Caius College in Padua, Italy, where
in 1602.
Back
Harvey also fainting related
England.
in England
the physiological and stated that
signs
in he
in almost suffers,
every affection, the countenance
to course
in the
hither
were to hear; with
blood
appetite, changes,
and thither.
pupils contracted; blushes; in fear, face is pale but
in
and
hope or fear, and the blood
In anger
our body appears
the eyes are fiery and
in modesty the cheeks are infused with and under sense ofinfamy and shame, the the ears burn as if for evil they heard or lust how quickly is the member distended erected!
Harvey’s psychological dent in regard to symptoms
insight is particularly of hysteria. Women
casionally
through
become
with either pain or pleasure, hope or fear, is the of an agitation whose influence extends to the Elsewhere he related the observation of a
insane
ungratified
desire,
‘ ‘
is a most
important
to sympathize
organ,
with
How dreadful, hirium, affected
arising
then,
person
brings
are the mental
the melancholy, from
and
the
the
were
paroxisms the dominion
under
the unnatural
state
aberrations, of frenzy, of spells,
of the uterus.
incurable diseases also are brought on by strual discharges, or from over abstinence tercourse when the passions are strong!
Harvey
“hysteric’ a young all the
also ‘
body
left
a beautiful
the deas if the and all
How
description
of a case
16, 1978; accepted
Oct.
25,
expected
all was refused
1978.
Dr. Mora is Medical Director, Astor Home for Children, Rhinebeck, N.Y., and Research Associate, Department of History of Science and Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, Conn. Address reprint requests to him at 32 Slate Hill Dr., Poughkeepsie, N.Y. 12603. 44
0002-953X/79/01/0044/05/$00.50
of
.
.
.
who experienced
symptoms
in her own person
of pregnancy;
after
the
fourteenth
week, being healthy and sprightly, she felt the movement of the child within the uterus, calculated the time at which she
Oct.
many
unhealthy menfrom sexual in-
pregnancy:
woman usual
whole
it, he said,
her
delivery,
and
when
she
thought,
further indications, that this was at hand, prepared bed, cradle, and all other matters ready for the event. July 31, 1978: revised
evioc-
‘ ‘
and to such a height does the malady reach in some, that they are believed to be poisoned, or moonstruck, or possessed by a devil. Having stated that the uterus
,
Received
of
the
same year, he married the daughter of the King’s personal physician. In 1607 he was elected Fellow of the College of Physicians, in 1609 became associated with St. Bartholomew’s Hospital, and in 1618 became physician to King Charles I, with whom he developed a close relationship. For 40 years, beginning in 1616, he held the Lumleian lectures on anatomy and physiology at the College ofPhysicians. Greatly upset by the Civil War, he remained faithful to Charles I. He died in 1657. Harvey is universally known for his discovery of the circulation of the blood. His discovery, based on solid experimental research, was described in his famous De Motu Cordis (1628). Among his other writings are the Prelectiones (notes on physiology and pathology related to his Lumleian lectures) and Exercitationes de Generatione Animalium in which he expressed his belief in the theory of epigenesis. An acute observer of human psychology, especially of women (undoubtedly fostered by his gynecological practice), Harvey fol!owed contemporary views, based on the Galenic tradition, on the knowledge of the nervous system. In the field of psychiatry proper, he anticipated concepts of modern psychosomatic medicine. In Exercitatio de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis he wrote that “every affection of the mind that is attended cause heart.”
described to emotions
in vain. Lucina. to answer her
.
.
tutelar
prayers;
deity the
American
Psychiatric
Association
But
of childbirth
motion
ceased; and by degrees, without inconvenience, domen had increased so it diminished; she however, barren ever after. © 1979
from the
of
the
.
.
fetus
as the abremained,
Am
J Psychiatry
Finally,
/36:1,
in the
January
case
1979
of an
18-year-old
‘lost the sense of feeling in the Body,” obviously on a hysteric her Parents to take her
(who home,
girl
external basis,
‘
vised erty)
GEORGE
sent her not and provide
who
parts Harvey
had
of her “ad-
thither out of povher a Husband, by
whom, in effect, she was according to many Mans wonder, cured ofthat
to his Prognostick, strange Disease.”
began
only
pact
not
oping
France.
Rousseau’s
Having
his unstable many years
veloped
died
mother
died
received
in
Ermenonville,
at his
birth
an uneven
father, he fled Geneva by Mme. de Warens,
a strong
attachment.
in 1712
education
in
After
having
held
several
servant girl, all of whom
meantime he acquainted with some of the leading represenof the French Enlightenment. His early writ-
tatives
his
ings
reveal
tific
progress
dissatisfaction with the failure of sciento improve the condition ofmankind. His works, Le Contrat Social and Emile, ap-
two main peared in 1762. After Paris by the Catholic an
invitation
his
home
from
in
Rousseau
work was Rousseau
philosopher
quarreled
evidence France
the latter authorities,
England
David
in
1765.
with
Hume
burned in accepted
Hume
to
Shortly and
make
thereafter
began
to
show
of
emotional disturbance. He returned to and spent his last few years in Paris. Basic to Rousseau’s thinking was his rejection of the cult of reason advocated by the Enlightenment as leading to return
happiness; to the state
his proposal lowing
that
maximal
individuals
obvious
social
for
that
ly linked
to
this
through social
the
is the
a proper
Rousseau’s
to his
Rousseau advocated a Hence, Rousseau issued
life be based
freedom
postulate
sary
in contrast, of nature.
on a contract
individual.
development process
al-
A neces-
of mature
ofeducation.
educational
ideas
It is
were
close-
12 years,
the
goals.
senses
develop
under
the
influence
of
pleasure and pain. In the third stage, years, the child learns not in an abstract, crete, way; in the develops rationally and religion.
fourth, and
a passionate
education
of our
from acquires
from 12 to 15 but in a con15 to 20 years, the child the
ideas
of
as well.
century
that
was
Rousseau’s the unhappy
revolutionary circumstances
vicissitudes
of his
positive
newly
preimdevel-
only
at the
idyllic
con-
modified
views ofhis
by
the
and aggression It is likely that
were influenced by childhood and by the
life.
Christian
values
Friedrich
Germany. telligent, languages. received after
Nasse
was
.
.
education
born
in
Bielefeld,
Proving at an early age to be highly inhe showed an interest in music and modern After studying at several universities, he his medical degree in Halle in 1800. In 1815,
several
years
ofgeneral
practice,
he accepted
position
of professor
of medicine
and
chief
energies
toward
main
the
care
the
physician at the hospital of the medical school of Halle. In 1819 he was called as clinical professor of medicine to the newly established University of Bonn, where he remained for the rest of his life. There he directed his two
goals:
and
treat-
ment of patients and the training of students according to the then-modern direction of experimental research on animals, work in the laboratory, and bedside teaching.
A prolific
on
various
lications of the
writer,
aspects
he published
of
books
medicine.
and
Among
articles
his
pub-
on psychiatry Mentally Ill
is the volume On the Treatment by Non-Physicians (1844). He founded and directed the Journal for Psychological Physicians (18181826), Annals of Anthropology and Pathology and Therapy of Insanity (1830), and the Journalfor th e Diagnosis and Treatment of Pat hological Mental Conditions (with Jacobi, 1838). He died in 1851.
At various
times Nasse called his system psychopsychosomathology and anthropologynames that emphasize the unity of the personality. He viewed psychosis as entirely dependent on a physical condition; as mind and body are indissolubly united, it ,
is impossible sense of the
,
to speak of mental disorders in the strict term. He also assumed a critical stance
toward mechanistic and spiritualistic, and monistic and dualistic attitudes. Under the influence of the philosopher Herbart, he attempted to build a psychology based on mathematical sophical postulates.
His
foundations principles
ing,
a truly
the
It was
on sexuality of childhood.
ing.”
he felt that
style and a tremendous
substantially
were based on direct observation sessment of environmental factors,
Moreover,
of his or her
Rousseau’s
Thus for the first time it was clearly stated that childhood should be studied with its own criteria rather than from the viewpoint of the adult. Childhood should not be seen as an age of imperfection, since it had its own uniqueness and adequacy based on feelings and instinctual needs. As Rousseau put it: “Nature wants children to be children before being men. Childhood has its own ways of seeing, thinking and feel.
aware
Emile had but on
of psychology
of childhood
physiology
Four stages of education are clearly defined in the four parts ofEmile. In the first, from birth to 2 years, the child begins experiencing things; in the second, up to
with way,
on
became
people.
from
and was helped for toward whom he de-
jobs, he became involved with an ignorant by whom he had five illegitimate children, were sent to a foundling home. In the
became
other
psychoanalytic emphasis as basic characteristics
Rousseau
Geneva.
only
field
beginning
I 778 Jacques
the child
with
Although written sented in an uneven
cept
Jean
when
relationship
MORA
and void of clinical
of philomedicine
of the patient, and formulation
asof
the individual diagnosis. In the Clinic for Mental Disease, which he opened in Bonn in 1819, he created a small community of patients, teachers, nurses, and students. For him, the psychiatrist should be an “anthropological physician” as, indeed, he was himself: a specialist in welfare medicine, clinical matters, teach-
and
legal
issues. 45
1978
Am
ANNIVERSARIES
Along icistic
with
other
representatives
philosophy
of German
of psychiatry
(Reil,
organ-
Fnedreich,
Ja-
cobi), Nasse was opposed to the so-called “mentalists’ (Heinroth, Ideler, Groos). He denied the existence of prenatal psychological influences and viewed all deductions of psychologists on the infantile psyche ‘
as
pure
fantasy.
For
him,
the
etiology
of mental
dis-
orders had to be found in disorders of the various organs of the body, especially the brain. Yet under the influence of Herbart, he accepted the notions of ‘threshold of the unconsciousness’ and, consequently, of repression and inhibition. He was also interested in the study of dreams and somnambulism. In the practical handling of the mentally ill he was eclectic and open-minded, making use ofdietetics, limited means ofrestraint, psychological influence, and occupational therapy. ‘
‘
I 878 Claude Bernard died. Born in St. Julien (Rh#{244}ne, France) in 1813, he received essentially a humanistic education. After working as an assistant pharmacist for some time (and unsuccessfully as a writer), he studied medicine in Paris, where he became assistant to Fran#{231}ois Magendie. Under his influence Bernard became involved in experimental physiology, as indicated by his medical thesis on the role of gastric juices in nutrition (1843). He developed the notion of “physiological autopsy,’ a technique aimed at isolating the properties of tissues and organs with the help of chemical substances. Among his most important discoveries in the field of neurophysiology during the succeeding years were the etiology of diabetes, the constricting and dilating functions of the vasomotor nerves, and the action of curare on the voluntary musdes (in recent years this action has had application in anesthesia and electroconvulsive therapy). Soon recognized as the leading experimental physiologist in France, Bernard received a number of awards and was appointed to prestigious positions, ‘
first
at
the
Sorbonne
(chair
of
general
physiology),
then the Academie des Sciences and the France (chair of experimental medicine). produced
which
a number
remains
exp#{233}rimentale Physiology and (1858). In these
of volumes,
the introduction (1865), preceded Pathology
the
College In time
de he
most
important of la m#{233}decine by the Lectures on the of the Nervous System
a l’#{233}tudede
works he developed the concepts of “inner secretion,” “inner environment,” and “reciprocal inhibition,” which were to become basic to the understanding of the functions of the organism. As a matter of fact, he always gave preeminence to function
over form in his painstaking search for the life. In later years he taught at the Museum History (1868) and was appointed senator pire (1869) and president of the Acad#{233}mie
(1869). Of his many scientists in France, States.
essence of of Natural of the emde France
pupils, some became outstanding Germany, Russia, and the United
J Psychiatry
136:1,
January
1979
Stanley Hall received the first American doctorate in psychology from Harvard University. Hall was born in 1844 and raised on a farm in Ashfield, Mass. En-
dowed
with
hams
College,
great
personal where
spired by philosophy for the ministry at New
York.
He
then
ambition,
he
he attended
became
Wil-
enthusiastically
in-
and evolution. In 1867 he studied Union Theological Seminary in spent
some
time
learning
theology
and philosophy, as well as physiology and physics, in Bonn and Berlin. Back home in 1871, he took his degree in theology but soon resigned from his first pastorate. For three years he taught French and German languages and literature at Antioch College. His interest in psychology was spurred by reading Wundt’s Physiological Psychology. Eventually he came under the influence of William James at Harvard, where in 1878 he presented his dissertation on the muscular perception of space. Following that he spent two years in Leipzig as Wundt’s first American student. Now definitely committed to the study of psychology, Hall embarked on an investigation of children’s thoughts and beliefs through interviews and questionnaires. He slowly gained renown through a series of Saturday morning talks on education given at the invitation ofthe president ofHarvard. In 1881 he accepted an offer to lecture at Johns Hopkins, and three years later he became full professor there. In 1883 he founded at Hopkins what is usually considered the first American psychology laboratory; a number of promising young men, such as Cattell and Dewey, were trained there. In 1887 he began to publish the American Journal of Psychology, the first journal of psychology in this country and still an important one today. Appointed the first president of the University in 1888, Hall aspired to develop
center
modeled
on the
style
of the
German
new
Clark
a research universi-
ties. There he taught psychology and founded the Pedagogical Summary (now the Journal of Genetic Psychology) in 1891 The next year, with a few others, he .
founded which
the he
was
American elected
Psychological the
first
Association,
of
president.
The results of the many studies on children conducted by Hall and his associates were published in 1894 in The Content of Children’s Minds on Entering School, a pioneering endeavor in the field of child psychology. It was followed by the monumental two-volume book Adolescence in 1904. By that time Hall was intrigued by the novelty of the psychoanalytic theories. In spite of the opposition of many of his colleagues
and
much
of the
public,
he
managed
to invite
Freud, Jung, and some other psychoanalysts for a series of conferences on the occasion of the 20th anniversary of Clark University in 1909. His longstanding interest in religion led him to publish the book Jesus the Christ in the Light of Psychology (1917), which was severely criticized by organized religion. He continued to work even after his retirement in 1920. In 1922 he published his two-volume book Senescence, the first work on geriatric psychology. Two of his books, Recreation of a Psychologist (1920) and The
Am
J Psychiatry
Life
and
136:1,
January
Confessions
tobiographical. In retrospect,
ofa
GEORGE
1979
Psychologist
(1923),
Hall died in 1924. Hall’s interests
fragmentary
and
credited
with
interest
in new
scattered.
two
main
fields,
may
appear
However,
he
rather
lutionary
theory
as
the
constant
be
he aroused
developmental
focus
of
John
was
born
independent
in Greenville,
spirit
from
16 he entered Furman University, tamed a master’s degree in 1900. already
opposed
his position and had ously revealed talent
multi-
to
any
S.C.
early
A re-
years,
at age
from which At that time
he obhe was
religious
influence.
orientation
professor “tropism. same year prominent versity of psychology
tory. In 1913 ‘Psychology
of biological
studies
of physiology and Watson received “
He
by Jacques
originator his Ph.D.
then
Loeb,
of the theory of in 1903. In that
he married a woman who belonged to a family and continued to work at the UniChicago as an instructor in experimental and director of the psychological labora-
his famous manifesto Views It. In it he proclaimed that psychology ‘is a purely objective experimental branch of natural science. Its theoretical goal is the prediction and control of behavior. The following year he produced Behavior: An introduction to Cornparative Psychology, a defense of animal psychology and of the place that it occupies in the behavioral sciences. In this way Watson was advocating a new kind ofpsychology “in the third person,” which was at variance with Wundt’s psychology ‘in the first person” (the school of introspection) and Freud’s psychology ‘in the second person’ (based on the transference situation between the individual and the analyst). The forceful and at times polemic way in which Wat‘
Watson published as a Behaviorist
‘ ‘
‘
‘ ‘
‘
‘
‘
son presented his ideas had a great impact tire field of American psychology. Elected
on the president
enof
the American Psychological Association in 1915, he announced his support of the theory of conditional reflexes brought forward by the Russian neurologist V.M. Bekhterev. (Pavlov’s main work on conditional reflexes
did not become available The climate seemed ready for from a speculative to a concrete
1927.) ogy
After a period of difficulties War I related to his criticism
in English until a shift in psycholorientation.
toward the end of World of a neurological test for
pilots, Watson began the study of children at the Henry Phipps Clinic in Baltimore. He concluded that the emotional reactions of children can be reduced to three types: love, elicited by the gentle stimulation of
the skin; elicited
rage, by
loud
elicited noises
by physical and
loss
restraints; of support.
and In
at Hopkins.
skill as the evohis
three
fear,
1919
he
book,
was
years
Psychologyfrom
peak of his career, afterward married
community
entered the University of Chicago, which was then dominated by George Mead and John Dewey. There he was particularly influenced toward experimental psychology by James R. Angell and toward a materialistic
In 1920, at the vorced and soon
a large business
B. Watson and
his most famous ofa Behaviorist.
his coworker
activity.
bellious
published Standpoint
psychol-
ogy and psychoanalysis through his excellent an organizer and publisher, and he maintained farious
au-
should
accomplishments: notably
are
The
so strong
he rose
advertising until his
ofthe
he was
was diRayner, academic
dismissed
as a salesman. new occupation,
to the position agency. retirement
the
Watson Rosalie
reaction
that
to work in this He
MORA
from He
obvifor in
of vice-president
remained in 1946.
in the
of field
of
Watson’s main psychology, and Clark University
interest, however, continued to be he pursued it through lecturing (at and the New School for Social Research) and writing. His book Behaviorism (1925) contains the following famous statement: ‘Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specific world to bring them up in and I will guarantee to take ‘
any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select. As far as is known, this experiment was never carried out. In 1928, he produced Psychological Care ofthe infant and Child, a popular ‘ ‘
book for the general public. It was year by The Battle ofBehaviorism, William
McDougall,
then
exponent
of the doctrine
son
the
spent
last
years
He died in 1958. Although Watson’s
professor
followed a polemic at Harvard
of purposive of his
the next against
life
and
behavior. in Westport,
theories
were
the
WatConn.
highly
con-
troversial, they were very stimulating for both his adherents and opponents. During his life neobehaviorism was flourishing, mainly through the work ofC.L. Hull. After his death the spread of behavior therapy gave
new
meaning
to Watson’s
work.
Kurt Goldstein was born in Kattowitz, Germany (now Poland). After obtaining a medical degree from the University of Breslau in 1903, he taught at the University of K#{246}nigsberg (1907-1915) and then worked as director of the Institute for Research into the Aftereffects
of Brain
Injuries.
He
later
became
professor
of
neurology at the University of Frankfurt (1916-1929), followed by a short stay in Berlin (1929-1933). His firsthand experience with large numbers of brain-injured soldiers during World War I, coupled with the influence
of
the
then-emerging
movement
of
Gestalt
theory, led him to consider the organism as a whole regardless of any particular deficit. Together with Wertheimer, K#{246}hler,Koffka, and Gruhle, he was one of the cofounders of the Gestalt psychology journal Psychologische Forschung (1921-1938). Forced
emigrated
by
the
Nazis
to Amsterdam volume The
to
leave
Germany,
(1934-1935),
where
Goldstein
he wrote
his classic Organism: A Holistic Approach to Biology Derived from Pathological Data in Man (1934; translated into English in 1938). In it he
presented the concept of the inborn potential toward self-realization as a driving force that puts the organism into action and achieves its optimal state when there is “adequacy” between the organism and the 47
1978
Am
ANNIVERSARIES
world. Good gestalt is ‘a form of coming to terms of the organism with the world, that form in which the organism actualizes itself, according to its nature, in the best way. Poor gestalt, “the tendency to discharge any tension whatsoever is a characteristic expression of a defective organism, of disease.” In fact, aphasic and brain-injured persons lack the ability to name objects as class symbols rather than experiencing the loss of words and word images, which ‘
“
indicates that while defects can be localized, functions cannot. In particular, Goldstein described the “catastrophic reaction” of brain-injured patients as a state of tremendous anxiety accompanied by a sense of “losing existence” or feeling unable “to be.” By dividing human acts into the abstract and the concrete, he postulated that impairment in abstract thinking (attention, planning, discrimination, hypothesizing) leaves
concrete operations unaffected, and vice versa. The Goldstein-Gelb and Goldstein-Scheerer tests were devised to measure the ability to form concepts and to diagnose brain lesions. Goldstein suggested that schizophrenics’ behavior may be either concrete or ab-
48
stract,
but
arousing From chiatry
that
to become
situations. 1936 to 1940 Goldstein at Columbia
rophysiological New
it tends
J Psychiatry
York
University
Laboratory City.
During
ered the William James under the titleHuman
136:1,
January
concrete
in anxiety-
was
professor
and
chief
at Montefiore the
period
lectures,
of psy-
of the
Neu-
Hospital
1938-1939
which
1979
were
in
he deliv-
published
Nature in the Light of Psychopathology (1940). He later served as professor of neurology at Tufts Medical School in Boston (1940-1945). From 1946 until his death in 1965 he taught at the College of the City of New York, Columbia University, and the New School for Social Research, and was guest professor at Brandeis University in Waltham, Mass. In 1962 he was one of the cofounders of the Journal of Humanistic Psychology. Among those particularly influenced by Goldstein were Abraham Maslow, the well-known promoter of “third force (humanistic) psychology,” and Fritz Perls, who was the founder of Gestalt psychotherapy. Goldstein’s Selected Papers were published posthumously in The Hague
in 1971.
